Sentence syntax - Norwegian
The basic shape of a Norwegian clause can be depicted as follows. The subject precedes the verb, objects immediately follow the verb and precede any oblique arguments or adverbials; when there are two objects, the indirect object is the one occurring closest to the main verb. Case is marked only on personal pronouns, with a subject – non-subject distinction. The items marked in boldface are generally obligatory.
(1) Subject Vmain IndirectObject DirectObject Oblique Adverbial
Grammar traditions often classify sentence constituents according to whether they are 'required', or 'valence bound', by the main verb; those that are, are often called arguments, and those that are not, adjuncts. (Traditions often suggest that constituents fall neatly into one or the other category, and that no further alternatives obtain, both of these assumptions may be questionable.) Among the constituents shown above, subject, object (both types) and oblique are commonly considered as arguments relative to the main verb, while adverbials, whether in final, fronted or nexal position (see below) are adjuncts.
Norwegian has a rich system of auxiliary verbs. Relative to the pattern just shown, they - in their maximal distribution - pattern as follows:
(2) Subject Modal ha Modal bli Vmain IndirectObject DirectObject Oblique Adverbial
Of the verbal categories here shown, 'Modal' comprises the auxiliaries ville, skulle, måtte, burde, kunne. In the positions indicated for 'Modal', these items can occur alone or in combination. Ha is called the perfect auxiliary, and bli the passive auxiliary. The order among these items is rigid. Vmain subsumes full verbs and copulas. Of copulas there are two, være and bli (distinct from the passive auxiliary). For all of these verb categories, there are six possible forms of inflection (for their full conjugational realizations, see Verb Conjugation, while below we exemplify with one of these conjugational patterns, the -et pattern):
- infinitive (in the -et pattern having a form ending in -e)
- imperative (with a form relating to an e-infinitive by dropping the -e)
- present (with a form relating to an e-infinitive by adding -r)
- past (with a form relating to an e-infinitive by adding -t)
- past participle (with a form identical to the past form)
- present participle (with a form relating to an e-infinitive by adding -nde),
Of these forms, the present and the past are called finite forms, while the infinitive and the participles are called non-finite forms. These are considered contrasts along the dimension of Tense. Imperative is a value along the Mode dimension, and in the verbal morphology, all the other forms mentioned represent Indicative. No further values of Mode are expressed in the verbal morphology in Norwegian (but can be expressed by other means). A further category often realized in languages' verbal morphology is Aspect; Norwegian, however, has no verbal inflectional form for aspectual values (but they can be expressed by other means).
The choice among the above mentioned Tense categories is connected to the sentence schema shown in (2) above, as follows:
- The first verb in a sentence is finite, whichever of the verb categories occurs first.
- The verb immediately following a modal is in infinitive form.
- The verb immediately following the auxiliary ha or the auxilary bli is in the past participle form.
Relative to the above schema, adverbial elements, in addition to the final position, can also occur adjacent to the finite verb, a position often referred to as the nexus position. At this point there is a distinction between main and subordinate clauses: in a main clause, the adverbial comes after the finite verb, in subordinate clauses before the finite verb.
For declarative clauses, another distinction between main and subordinate clauses is that in main clauses, the initial position can be held by an adverbial element or a topicalized element, where in either case the subject is then moved behind the finite verb; this is generally referred to as Subject-Verb Inversion. In subordinate declarative clauses no such fronted position is available, however, these clauses are standardly introduced by a complementizer, such as at when the clause serves as an argument relative to the verb.
Interrogative clauses come in two varieties, yes-no-questions and constituent questions, the latter inquiring about the value of a constituent of the sentence, the former inquiring about the truth-value of the entire sentence. When occurring as main interrogative clauses, yes-no-questions are marked by Subject-Verb Inversion but with no element fronted, while constituent questions are marked by fronting of a constituent carrying the morphological shape of an interrogative constituent, namely the initial letters hv- - what may be referred to as the questioned constituent -, and Subject-Verb Inversion. When occurring as subordinate interrogative clauses, yes-no-questions are marked by the complementizers om or hvorvidt, and no inversion, while constituent questions are marked by a clause initial occurrence of the questioned constituent (marked by hv-), and no inversion.
Thus, all varieties of subordinate clauses have the constituent order shown above, preceded by a complementizer or a hv-constituent, but without Subject-Verb Inversion, whereas all interrogative main clauses have inversion, and likewise declarative main clauses with a fronted adverbial or topicalized constituent. Main constituent questions likewise have a fronted element (the questioned constituent), while main yes-no questions simply start with the (finite) verb. The nexus position for adverbials in all subordinate clauses is immediately before the finite verb, in main clauses immediately after the finite verb.
Structurally close to the types of subordinate clauses now described - to be called finite subordinate clauses - are infinitival clauses: these are introduced by the infinitival marker å, they have no subject, and their first verb is in infinitive. They otherwise have the same internal build-up as finite subordinate clauses. (There is one restriction: in Norwegian, infinitival clauses can not have interrogative function, in contrast to English, for instance, and so they never have fronted hv-elements or interrogative complementizers.) Given this parallellism, we will subsume finite and infinitival subordinate clauses alike under the notion subordinate clauses. (Other languages also display subordinate structures built around participial forms, those built around present participles often called gerunds, and those built around past participles as absolutives; since these types only to a very limited extent can be used in Norwegian, we don't include them in this enumeration.)
Subordinate clauses, whether finite or infinitival, can serve as either arguments or adjuncts, and as arguments, in all of the functions mentioned above. When serving as adjuncts/adverbials, they mostly do so as complements to a preposition, but for finite subordinate clauses, there are also specific complemtizers dedicated to signaling time, place, reason and other connections that the clause may express relative to the main verb.
The possibility for subordinate clauses to be governed by a preposition is also essential when they serve as obliques. The constellation of a subordinate clauses being governed by a preposition is on the whole rather particular to the Scandinavian languages among the Germanic languages.
[to be continued] --Lars Hellan 19:51, 13 August 2011 (UTC)