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== Definitions ==
+
[[Image:Ling111students.jpg|350px|right]]
 +
This and the dependent pages have been developed by second-semester students at the Linguistic Department at the  [http://www.ntnu.no/ Norwegian University of
 +
Science and Technology] in Trondheim, Norway. All students could use these pages as an information hub, e.g., for term papers and for the final exam.
 +
Frawley's book <ref> Frawley, W.1992.  ''Linguistic Semantics'' Laurence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.</ref>
 +
served as our reference book.
  
−
First of we will define a number of notions of or related to space, deixis and motion. These notions will later on be used in trying to determine the exact semantical content of a set of norwegian (and a few danish) prepositions.
 
  
−
===Spatial concepts===
+
A special thanks goes to [[User:Andreas|Andreas T. Slørdahl]], [[User:Elin|Elin Marstein]], [[User:Elias|Elias Aamot]], [[User:Fredrik|Fredrik Salvesen Haukaas]] and [[User:Signe|Signe Rix Berthelin]] who put a lot of work into this.
 +
--[[User:Dorothee|Dorothee Beermann]] 17:26, 17 May 2009 (CEST)
  
−
Spatial concepts are in essence relations between two or more instances. Whenever you make a statment about the location of an object, you state the location ''relative to'' another object. While you can claim that an object is inside another object, you cannot claim that it is inside, but not of another object. The conception of space incorporated in language is a naive one, proved wrong by modern physics, yet still how it is perceived by humans.
+
Our work on lexical semantics is also reflected on the following pages:
  
−
The object whose location you make a statement about is called ''the located object'', while the other object, which you compare the location of the located object with, is called ''the reference object''.
 
  
−
====Locations====
+
* [[Classroom:NTNU,_LING_1113_(2009)_-_Norwegian_Verbs_of_Motion]]
 +
* [[Classroom:NTNU,_LING1113_(2009)_-_Events]]
 +
* [[Classroom:NTNU,_LING_1113_(2009)_-_Norwegian_Prepositions]]
 +
* [[Classroom:NTNU,_LING_1113_(2009)_-_Norwegian_Expressions_of_Motion_and_Space_-_Bibliography]]
  
−
'''Topological locations'''
 
  
−
Topological locations are geometric properties of an object that are invariant under change of the object. Even if we change the size or shape of a box, or change our position relative to it, the interior of the box will still be inside the box. This is opposed to projective locations, are relative to the viewpoint of the viewer.
 
  
−
[[Coincidence]]:
+
== Definitions ==
  
−
-The located object is in contact with the reference object, or conceptually projected as sharing the same ideal space.
+
We will define notions of or related to space and deixis. These notions will be used to determine the semantic content of a set of Norwegian (and a few Danish) prepositions.  
  
−
[[Interiority]]:
 
  
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-The located object is included or contained in the reference object.
 
  
−
[[Exteriority]]:
+
===Spatial concepts===
  
−
-The located object is external to the reference object.
+
Spatial concepts are in essence relations between two or more entities. Whenever you make a statement about the location of an object, you state the location ''relative to'' another object. While you can claim that an object is inside another object, you cannot claim that it is inside, but not of another object. The conception of space incorporated in language is a naive one according to Frawley (1992), proven to be wrong by modern physics, yet beliefs such as 'there is empty space and there are solid objects with no space in them', 'there are absolute directions' and 'it is possible to not be in motion' seem to determine how space is encoded in language, and how it is in fact perceived by human beings.
  
−
'''Projective locations'''
+
The object whose location you make a statement about is called ''Figure'', while the other object, which you compare the location of the located object with, is called ''Ground''. The linguistic terms ''Figure'' and ''Ground'' (for more information see for example Talmy (1975)) reflect the use of these concepts in theories of human perception. For some more information see: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure-ground_(perception) Figure and Ground in human perception]
  
−
With projective locations, the value and interpretation varies depending on the frame of reference, or vantage point against which the relationship is judged. Thus the relationship of projective locations vary according to the viewpoint of the viewer, or whether the located object is perceived in relation to the viewer or the reference object.
+
''References''
  
−
[[Inferiority]]:
+
'''Deixis'''
  
−
-The located object is located in the area below the reference object, where below is defined in terms of the observer's point of view, or as defined by the reference object itself.  
+
Parts of the information conveyed by a sentence is signaled relative to a given location in time and space. This information is called deictic information.  
  
−
[[Anteriority]]:
+
While you, by saying ''12:31:06, May 5th 2006'' specify an exact temporal location, you only pinpoint a temporal location relative to a given location by saying ''now'', ''before'' and ''after''.
  
−
-The located object is located in front of the reference object. In front of is defined in terms of the observer's point of view, or as defined by the reference object itself.  
+
''Now'', ''before'' and ''after'' are in other words deictic, while the phrase ''12:31:06, May 5th 2006'' is not.
  
−
[[Superiority]]:
+
Spatial deixis in Norwegian mostly encodes remoteness and direction.
  
−
-The located object is located over the reference object. Over is defined in terms of the observer's point of view, or as defined by the reference object itself.
+
Reference to PLACES can be given absolute, such as by the phrase ''in the house'' or relative, such as by the adverb ''here''. The latter expression can only be understood contextually which makes deictic spacial expressions anaphora. For more information follow the internal link above.
−
 
+
−
[[Posteriority]]:
+
−
 
+
−
-The located object occupies the space projected behind the reference object. Posteriority is in Norwegian (and Danish) defined in terms of the observer's point of view in relation to the reference object, or in terms of the relation to the reference object itself.
+
−
 
+
−
[[Laterality]]:
+
−
 
+
−
-The located object is located beside the reference object. Beside is defined in terms of the observer's point of view, or as defined by the reference object itself.
+
−
 
+
−
====Deixis====
+
−
 
+
−
Deixis is how an expression is anchored to some essential point in context.
+
−
 
+
−
'''Reference point'''
+
−
 
+
−
-The reference point is the location that the location of the located object is defined as relative to.
+
  
 
'''Remoteness'''
 
'''Remoteness'''
  
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-Remoteness is defined as the relative distance between the reference point and the located object. Languages may encode any number of degrees of remoteness.  
+
[[Image:Remoteduck.jpg|thumb|left| a remote rubber duck]]
  
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'''[[Direction]]'''
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Norwegian encodes remoteness as distance from the speaker and it features a binary distinction, that is, something is either close to the speaker or far from it.
  
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-There are two directions: movement away from the reference point, and movement towards the reference point.
+
</references>
  
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===Events===
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Closeness of the figure to the speaker is encoded by 'her', while remoteness is coded by 'der'
  
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====Motion====
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Languages may encode any number of degrees of remoteness.
  
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Motion can be described as dynamic movement through space. Motion entails the displacement of some entity, or conceptually relevant positional change. Motion is usually associated with actives, seeing that more often than not motion entails some kind of action, though certain motions can be described as states.
 
  
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'''Theme'''
 
  
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- The entity that is displaced by the predicate.
 
  
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'''Source'''
 
  
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- The area from which the theme moves.
 
  
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'''Goal'''
 
  
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- The area to which theme intends to move.
 
  
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'''Location'''
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===Directionality===
  
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- The surroundings in which the motion events take place.
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There are two directions: movement away from the reference point, and movement towards the reference point. For more information follow
 +
[[NTNU, LING1133 (2009) - Directionality in Norwegian|this link]].
  
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- '''Path'''
+
===Topological notions===
  
−
- The trajectory of the theme.
+
Lexical semantics distinguishes between several topological notions. Some of them are mentioned in Frawley (1992), such as ''interiority'', ''coincidence'' and ''exteriority''. These three locations have in common, that they are not dependent on a viewpoint, that means they are constant no matter where the viewer stands and which reference point (s)he chooses to describe the location in question.
  
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'''Conveyance'''
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For example, if a cat is located interior to a house, this relation pertains independent of where the speaker and the hearer stand relative to the situation described. The reader might try the same with exterior and coincidence after reading our notions of those concepts below.
  
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- How motion events are carried out. The basic distinction is between vehicular and non-vehicular transport.
+
Coincidence:
  
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'''Manner'''
+
When we talk about conveyance in the context of motion, we mean how the motion is carried out. The main difference is vehicular vs. non-vehicular transport.
 +
If a Figure coincides with the Ground, the Figure and Ground share some space. This sharing can mean two things occur in the same space or that they are in some sense attached or related to each other. The space shared can also be an ideal space projected by the Ground. In this case there exist a conventional notions of how big such a projected space is, depending for example on the size of the Ground. The space projected by a fly might not stretch as far as the space projected by a house.
  
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- How motion events are performed in terms of speed and intensity.  
+
[[NTNU, LING1113 (2009) - Interiority]]:
 +
[[Image:inside_cats.jpg|thumb|left|'interior' and 'exterior' cats]]
  
−
'''Cause'''
+
When a Figure is located interior to a ground, the figure can be said to be contained in the Ground. This can be partially as well as totally, and both options imply that the figure must be smaller than the ground. It should be noted, that if the gound is for example a garden and the figure is a person, an interior relation between does not (necessarily) mean that the person is burried in the garden. The person might perfectly well be standing up with the feet being the only body parts interacting physically with the garden. We still think of the person as interior to the garden though, since we think of this interiority as occupying some space inside the area referred to as a garden.
  
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- The relationship between a movement and what causes the movement.
+
<br>
 +
<br>
  
−
== Prepositions ==
 
  
−
====[[bak]]====
 
  
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'Bak' indicates that the located object has a relationship of posteriority to the reference object.
 
  
−
====blant====
 
  
−
'Blant' indicates that the located object has a relationship of laterality to more than two reference objects, which do not coincide
+
[[NTNU, LING 1113 (2009) - Exteriority]]:
  
−
====[[fra]]====
+
A figure with an exterior relation to its ground is occupying the space which is outside the boarders of the ground. When exteriority is denoted, the figure does not share the space of the ground, though it might happen to share some space projected by the ground, as well as it is might be located far away. The figure is occupying some space which is not contained in the ground when exteriority is denoted.
  
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Fra is a deictic relation of the located objects movement away from the reference object
 
  
−
====[[gjennom]]====
 
  
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This is a very complex preposition, as it actually denotes a path of three states:
+
'''Projective locations'''
  
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(- The located object has a path towards the reference object)
+
With projective locations, the value and interpretation varies depending on the frame of reference, or vantage point against which the relationship is judged. Thus the relationship of projective locations varies according to the viewpoint of the viewer, or whether the figure is perceived in relation to the viewer or the ground.
−
+
−
- The located object has a relationship of interiority to the reference object, and is in motion
+
  
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(- The located object has a path away from the reference object)
+
'''Inferiority''':
  
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The first and third stage is not obligatory, but are implicated, because this movement is expected to be intended by the located object even if it is not actually part of the movement described
+
The preposition "under" signals inferiority and can also signal coincidence (for example in 'tyggisen er festa under bordet', where the chewing gum is stuck to the bottom side of the table). An example could be "en katt ligger under bordet", translated to "a cat lies under the table". The located object is "en katt" and the reference object is "bordet". The located object is placed in the downward space from the underside of the table, without the two being in any contact with each other.
  
−
====hos====
+
The preposition "under" in Norwegian can also denote time, as in the sentence "under krigen", which means "during the war". Here we don't have any located object, only a reference object, namely "krigen".
  
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The located object has a close proximity to the reference object, yet always exterior to it, and never coinciding
+
"Nedenfor" is another preposition signaling inferiority, it signals that the located object is in the space below the reference object. The relation is not of coincidence, since there isn't any contact between them. An example could be "huset ligger nedenfor skolen", translated to "the house lies below the school". You can also use "nedenfor" to denote a paragraph later on in a book, "et avsnitt nedenfor på siden", which means "one paragraph further down on the page".
  
−
====i====
 
−
'i' indicates that the located object has a relationship of interiority to the reference object, but this can be both a total or a partial interiority.
 
  
−
====innenfor====
+
-The figure is located in the area below the ground, where below is defined in terms of the observer's point of view, or as defined by the ground itself.
  
−
The located object has a relationship of interiority to the reference object, which is an enclosed space. 'Innenfor' does not have any other locational meanings.
+
'''Anteriority''':
 +
In Norwegian as for the frame of reference, the front is determined by the frame of reference of the viewer, when we talk about anteriority.  
 +
If we say in Norwegian "Clare stands in front of the museum" we mean that from the viewer's point of view Clare is standing in front of it, and then it is likewise whether the front of the museum itself is turned towards her or the back of it is.
  
−
====inntil====
+
We have "fremfor" describing anteriority in the physical sense having a physical location, also it describes prioritization, so it is a conceptual expression too. For instance we could have the sentence "Hun valgte sjokolade fremfor iskrem", which means "she chose chocolate rather than ice cream". So in this sentence we have a concept of what one prefers.
 +
When "fremfor" is used as a location physically it denotes anteriority. An example would be "en bil står fremfor huset", meaning "a car stands in front of the house". Here the located object is "bilen" and the reference object is "huset". So physically the car is in front of the house from the frame of reference of the viewer.
  
−
The located object is coinciding with the reference object, and has a relationship of laterality to it
+
"Fremom" denotes anteriority in Norwegian. An example could be the sentence "Barna springer fremom foreldrene", meaning "the children run ahead of the parents". In the physical sense I would suggest these two variants to be expressing not only that the children in this example are running in front of the parents, but that there is a goal here. All are heading towards a place, which is the goal, and therefore the located object running in front of the reference object is also ahead, it is leading the path towards the goal. We have locomotion here, namely the running, a place, a goal and a path, and the action is not finished, so there is atelicity involved. An example of the conceptual use of these two is "Han valgte hus fremom leilighet", which means "He chose house rather than apartment".
 +
"Foran" is the perhaps most common preposition to express anteriority in Norwegian. An example could be "En gutt står foran huset", which means "a boy stands in front of the house". The located object is "en gutt" and the reference object is "huset". We have a physical location here, and the relation between the objects is the one of anteriority. "Mye trening før fotballkampen", which means "much practice before the football match", so as we can see "foran" can also denote time. Here "foran" is used in the conceptual sense and there is no physical location.
  
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====mellom====
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-The figure is located in front of the ground. In front of is defined in terms of the observer's point of view, or as defined by the ground itself; the concepts define on the [[Classroom:NTNU,_LING1113_(2009)_-_Some_Terminology| following page apply]]
  
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The located object has a relationship of laterality to two reference points, who do not have a relationship of laterality to each other
+
===Events===
  
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====mot====
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''' ''Motion'' '''
  
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1. 'Mot' indicates that the located object has a relationship of coincidence to the reference object. That is if the located object rests against the reference object.
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Motion can be described as dynamic movement through space. Motion entails the displacement of some entity, or conceptually relevant positional change. Motion is usually associated with actives, seeing that more often than not motion entails some kind of action, though certain motions can be described as states.
  
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2. It may also indicate that the located object is moving towards the reference object.
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'''Figure''' is the entity that is displaced by the predicate.
  
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====omkring====
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The '''Source''' of motion is the location from which the moving object (Figure) starts it's motion.
  
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The reference object has a relationship of interiority to the located object
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'''Goal'''
 +
The goal is the location to which the moving object (Figure) moves.
  
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====ovenfor====
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'''Location'''
 +
The surroundings in which the motion events take place.
  
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The preposition ''ovenfor'' is used to indicate that the relation between the located object and the reference object is one of superiority, but not of coincidence.
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- Where the movement happens.
  
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In simpler terms: Object1 is ''ovenfor'' another object if it is located over that object - that is higher than it and in the space above it - but not if Object1 is touching the other object.
+
'''Path'''
 +
Motion can be both path consuming and non-path consuming. Many languages encode this difference, for example German.
  
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====overfor====
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*Path consuming
 +
Path consuming motion is when an object moves from location A to location B. When the object has arrived at location B the motion is complete. It does not move around unspecified inside an area.
  
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The located object and reference object are anterior to each other
+
*Non-path consuming
  
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====[[på]]====
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Dancing is a good example of non-path consuming movement because it is motion, but the point of the movement is not to move from one location to another. This is not what is achieved either.
  
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'På' in its most common form, though the matter is far more complicated than this, indicates that the located object has a relationship of superiority to the reference object, as well as coinciding with it.
 
  
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====[[rundt]]====
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'''The trajectory of the figure'''
  
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The reference object has a relationship of interiority to the located object.
+
'''[[Conveyance]]'''
  
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====[[til]]====
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- By which means movement is made possible. The basic distinction is between vehicular and non-vehicular transportation.
  
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The located object is not close to the reference object, but moves towards it.
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'''[[Manner]]'''
  
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====[[under]]====
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- How motion events are performed in terms of speed and intensity.  
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'Under' indicates that the located object has a relationship of inferiority to the reference object.
+
  
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== Motion Verbs ==
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'''[[Cause]]'''
  
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In this wiki we define Motion Verbs as the verbs - apearing alone or in a complex - as verbs denoting movement. This might be movement from A to B, that is locomotion, or it might be movement inside the same scene, that is single motion. As mentioned above, some motion verbs might be part of a complex and thus denoting the movement in cooperation with a preposition.
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- The relationship between a movement and what causes the movement.
−
 
+
−
In Norwegian it is often so that is you have a motion verb with a prepositon, the complex is denotiong locomotion. If you have a motion verb without a preposition, the verb can denote either locomotion or single motion; that is to say, it is not specified whether single motion or locomotion is denoted, and the context has to help us deciding the location(s) of the movement.
+
−
 
+
−
Some motion verbs indicate that a path -abstract or concrete- is covered when the action denoted by the verb is carried out. Some prototypes of motion verbs implying a path are 'go' and 'run'. Note that the path is not necessarily explicitly mentioned in the predication sentence indicating that a path is covered; the path is often implied and understood as being present by virtue of the speaker's and hearer's knowledge of the concept denoted by the respective verb.
+
−
 
+
−
It might also be the case that there is a goal of the movement denoted by the verb. Again, this goal might not be explicitly uttered; the pressense of a goal is understood as implied in the concept expressed by the verb.
+
−
 
+
−
To see more on motion in general, please see the chapter on motion.
+
−
 
+
−
====Gå====
+
−
 
+
−
"Gå" encodes motion by the use of feet in a normal manner.
+
−
 
+
−
====Springe/løpe====
+
−
 
+
−
The synonymous motion verbs "springe" and "løpe" encode motion by the use of feet, in a manner of high speed.
+
−
 
+
−
====Dra/fare====
+
−
 
+
−
"Dra" and "Fare" are synonymous motion verbs that encode motion of the theme away from the source.
+
−
 
+
−
====[[Stikke]]====
+
−
 
+
−
This verb usually encodes movement away from a source, often only for a short period of time or swiftly
+
−
 
+
−
====Rømme====
+
−
 
+
−
Encodes movement away from a source, either quickly or from a place from which movement is restricted, or both. It almost always implies the presence of some sentient entity that would try to hinder the theme's movement.
+
−
 
+
−
====Komme====
+
−
 
+
−
"Komme" is a motion verb which encodes motion of the theme towards the goal.
+
−
 
+
−
====[[Svømme]]====
+
−
 
+
−
"Svømme" encodes motion through a liquid ground, and that the theme is completely or almost completely submerged in the liquid through which the movement takes place.
+
−
 
+
−
====Fly====
+
−
 
+
−
Fly encodes motion through the ground ''air'', without contact with the earth, usually by aerodynamic means.
+
−
 
+
−
====Kjøre====
+
−
 
+
−
"Kjøre" encodes motion with vehicular conveyance.
+
−
 
+
−
====sykle====
+
−
 
+
−
"Sykle" encodes motion by use of bicycle as medium of conveyance.  
+
  
−
====[[ramle]]====
 
  
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''Ramle'' encodes non-voluntary motion through the ground ''air''.
 
  
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====Falle====
 
  
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The motion verb ''falle'' encodes involuntary motion downwards through the ground ''air''.
 
  
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====synke====
 
  
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Encodes gradual downwards involuntary movement through a ground
 
  
−
====stige====
 
  
−
Encodes gradually upwards movement
+
[[Category:Motion and Space]]
 +
[[Category:Norwegian]]
 +
[[Category:CourseWork]]

Latest revision as of 21:53, 7 October 2015

Ling111students.jpg

This and the dependent pages have been developed by second-semester students at the Linguistic Department at the [http://www.ntnu.no/ Norwegian University of Science and Technology] in Trondheim, Norway. All students could use these pages as an information hub, e.g., for term papers and for the final exam. Frawley's book [1] served as our reference book.


A special thanks goes to Andreas T. Slørdahl, Elin Marstein, Elias Aamot, Fredrik Salvesen Haukaas and Signe Rix Berthelin who put a lot of work into this. --Dorothee Beermann 17:26, 17 May 2009 (CEST)

Our work on lexical semantics is also reflected on the following pages:



Definitions

We will define notions of or related to space and deixis. These notions will be used to determine the semantic content of a set of Norwegian (and a few Danish) prepositions.


Spatial concepts

Spatial concepts are in essence relations between two or more entities. Whenever you make a statement about the location of an object, you state the location relative to another object. While you can claim that an object is inside another object, you cannot claim that it is inside, but not of another object. The conception of space incorporated in language is a naive one according to Frawley (1992), proven to be wrong by modern physics, yet beliefs such as 'there is empty space and there are solid objects with no space in them', 'there are absolute directions' and 'it is possible to not be in motion' seem to determine how space is encoded in language, and how it is in fact perceived by human beings.

The object whose location you make a statement about is called Figure, while the other object, which you compare the location of the located object with, is called Ground. The linguistic terms Figure and Ground (for more information see for example Talmy (1975)) reflect the use of these concepts in theories of human perception. For some more information see: Figure and Ground in human perception

References

Deixis

Parts of the information conveyed by a sentence is signaled relative to a given location in time and space. This information is called deictic information.

While you, by saying 12:31:06, May 5th 2006 specify an exact temporal location, you only pinpoint a temporal location relative to a given location by saying now, before and after.

Now, before and after are in other words deictic, while the phrase 12:31:06, May 5th 2006 is not.

Spatial deixis in Norwegian mostly encodes remoteness and direction.

Reference to PLACES can be given absolute, such as by the phrase in the house or relative, such as by the adverb here. The latter expression can only be understood contextually which makes deictic spacial expressions anaphora. For more information follow the internal link above.

Remoteness

a remote rubber duck

Norwegian encodes remoteness as distance from the speaker and it features a binary distinction, that is, something is either close to the speaker or far from it.

</references>

Closeness of the figure to the speaker is encoded by 'her', while remoteness is coded by 'der'

Languages may encode any number of degrees of remoteness.





Directionality

There are two directions: movement away from the reference point, and movement towards the reference point. For more information follow this link.

Topological notions

Lexical semantics distinguishes between several topological notions. Some of them are mentioned in Frawley (1992), such as interiority, coincidence and exteriority. These three locations have in common, that they are not dependent on a viewpoint, that means they are constant no matter where the viewer stands and which reference point (s)he chooses to describe the location in question.

For example, if a cat is located interior to a house, this relation pertains independent of where the speaker and the hearer stand relative to the situation described. The reader might try the same with exterior and coincidence after reading our notions of those concepts below.

Coincidence:

When we talk about conveyance in the context of motion, we mean how the motion is carried out. The main difference is vehicular vs. non-vehicular transport. If a Figure coincides with the Ground, the Figure and Ground share some space. This sharing can mean two things occur in the same space or that they are in some sense attached or related to each other. The space shared can also be an ideal space projected by the Ground. In this case there exist a conventional notions of how big such a projected space is, depending for example on the size of the Ground. The space projected by a fly might not stretch as far as the space projected by a house.

NTNU, LING1113 (2009) - Interiority:

'interior' and 'exterior' cats

When a Figure is located interior to a ground, the figure can be said to be contained in the Ground. This can be partially as well as totally, and both options imply that the figure must be smaller than the ground. It should be noted, that if the gound is for example a garden and the figure is a person, an interior relation between does not (necessarily) mean that the person is burried in the garden. The person might perfectly well be standing up with the feet being the only body parts interacting physically with the garden. We still think of the person as interior to the garden though, since we think of this interiority as occupying some space inside the area referred to as a garden.





NTNU, LING 1113 (2009) - Exteriority:

A figure with an exterior relation to its ground is occupying the space which is outside the boarders of the ground. When exteriority is denoted, the figure does not share the space of the ground, though it might happen to share some space projected by the ground, as well as it is might be located far away. The figure is occupying some space which is not contained in the ground when exteriority is denoted.


Projective locations

With projective locations, the value and interpretation varies depending on the frame of reference, or vantage point against which the relationship is judged. Thus the relationship of projective locations varies according to the viewpoint of the viewer, or whether the figure is perceived in relation to the viewer or the ground.

Inferiority:

The preposition "under" signals inferiority and can also signal coincidence (for example in 'tyggisen er festa under bordet', where the chewing gum is stuck to the bottom side of the table). An example could be "en katt ligger under bordet", translated to "a cat lies under the table". The located object is "en katt" and the reference object is "bordet". The located object is placed in the downward space from the underside of the table, without the two being in any contact with each other.

The preposition "under" in Norwegian can also denote time, as in the sentence "under krigen", which means "during the war". Here we don't have any located object, only a reference object, namely "krigen".

"Nedenfor" is another preposition signaling inferiority, it signals that the located object is in the space below the reference object. The relation is not of coincidence, since there isn't any contact between them. An example could be "huset ligger nedenfor skolen", translated to "the house lies below the school". You can also use "nedenfor" to denote a paragraph later on in a book, "et avsnitt nedenfor på siden", which means "one paragraph further down on the page".


-The figure is located in the area below the ground, where below is defined in terms of the observer's point of view, or as defined by the ground itself.

Anteriority: In Norwegian as for the frame of reference, the front is determined by the frame of reference of the viewer, when we talk about anteriority. If we say in Norwegian "Clare stands in front of the museum" we mean that from the viewer's point of view Clare is standing in front of it, and then it is likewise whether the front of the museum itself is turned towards her or the back of it is.

We have "fremfor" describing anteriority in the physical sense having a physical location, also it describes prioritization, so it is a conceptual expression too. For instance we could have the sentence "Hun valgte sjokolade fremfor iskrem", which means "she chose chocolate rather than ice cream". So in this sentence we have a concept of what one prefers. When "fremfor" is used as a location physically it denotes anteriority. An example would be "en bil står fremfor huset", meaning "a car stands in front of the house". Here the located object is "bilen" and the reference object is "huset". So physically the car is in front of the house from the frame of reference of the viewer.

"Fremom" denotes anteriority in Norwegian. An example could be the sentence "Barna springer fremom foreldrene", meaning "the children run ahead of the parents". In the physical sense I would suggest these two variants to be expressing not only that the children in this example are running in front of the parents, but that there is a goal here. All are heading towards a place, which is the goal, and therefore the located object running in front of the reference object is also ahead, it is leading the path towards the goal. We have locomotion here, namely the running, a place, a goal and a path, and the action is not finished, so there is atelicity involved. An example of the conceptual use of these two is "Han valgte hus fremom leilighet", which means "He chose house rather than apartment". "Foran" is the perhaps most common preposition to express anteriority in Norwegian. An example could be "En gutt står foran huset", which means "a boy stands in front of the house". The located object is "en gutt" and the reference object is "huset". We have a physical location here, and the relation between the objects is the one of anteriority. "Mye trening før fotballkampen", which means "much practice before the football match", so as we can see "foran" can also denote time. Here "foran" is used in the conceptual sense and there is no physical location.

-The figure is located in front of the ground. In front of is defined in terms of the observer's point of view, or as defined by the ground itself; the concepts define on the following page apply

Events

Motion

Motion can be described as dynamic movement through space. Motion entails the displacement of some entity, or conceptually relevant positional change. Motion is usually associated with actives, seeing that more often than not motion entails some kind of action, though certain motions can be described as states.

Figure is the entity that is displaced by the predicate.

The Source of motion is the location from which the moving object (Figure) starts it's motion.

Goal The goal is the location to which the moving object (Figure) moves.

Location The surroundings in which the motion events take place.

- Where the movement happens.

Path Motion can be both path consuming and non-path consuming. Many languages encode this difference, for example German.

  • Path consuming

Path consuming motion is when an object moves from location A to location B. When the object has arrived at location B the motion is complete. It does not move around unspecified inside an area.

  • Non-path consuming

Dancing is a good example of non-path consuming movement because it is motion, but the point of the movement is not to move from one location to another. This is not what is achieved either.


The trajectory of the figure

Conveyance

- By which means movement is made possible. The basic distinction is between vehicular and non-vehicular transportation.

Manner

- How motion events are performed in terms of speed and intensity.

Cause

- The relationship between a movement and what causes the movement.
  1. ↑ Frawley, W.1992. Linguistic Semantics Laurence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
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