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Difference between revisions of "Typological Features Template for Luganda"

 
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|'''Phonological Features'''
 
|'''Phonological Features'''
−
|In the following fields you describe the phonological inventory o [your language]
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Vowel inventory
+
|'''Vowel inventory'''
−
|Luganda has only 5 vowels: [ a, e, i, o, u ]. Any of them can be long or short.
+
|Luganda has only 5 vowel phonemes: / a e i o u /. Any of them can be long or short.
−
i: high, front
+
/i/ high, front;
−
u: high, back
+
/u/ high, back;
−
e: mid, front
+
/e/ mid, front;
−
o: mid, back
+
/o/ mid, back;
−
a:front, low
+
/a/ front, low.
 
|-
 
|-
 
|'''Vowel harmony
 
|'''Vowel harmony
 
'''Nominal Vowel harmony'''
 
'''Nominal Vowel harmony'''
−
|Vowel harmony in Luganda relates to the Luganda Vowel Chart, which contains only five vowels. The vowel on the noun class dictates the initial vowel that the noun takes on. The Luganda noun classes allow only three vowels, namely: [u, i, a]. The occurence of any of those vowels on a noun class dictates the initial vowel in this manner: [u] harmonizes with [o], [i] harmonizes with [e] and [a] harmonizes with [a].  Examples, omuti, emiti, amata.
+
|Vowel harmony in Luganda relates to the Luganda vowel chart, which contains only five vowels. The vowel on the noun class determines the initial vowel that the noun takes on. The Luganda noun classes allow only three vowels, namely /u i a/. The occurrence of any of those vowels on a noun class determines the initial vowel in this manner /u/ harmonizes with /o/, /i/ harmonizes with /e/ and /a/ harmonizes with /a/.  Examples, omuti, emiti, amata.
 
|-
 
|-
−
|Verbal Vowel harmony
+
|'''Verbal Vowel harmony'''
−
|This harmony occurs on suffixes only. This harmony follows this manner: verbs whose penultimate syllable has [a, u, i] harmonizes with [i] in suffixing the root. Verbs whose penultimate syllable has [e, o] harmonizes with [e] in suffing the root.
+
|This harmony occurs on suffixes only. It follows this manner: verbs roots whose last syllable has /a u i/ harmonize with /i/ in the suffixes. Verbs whose roots last syllable has /e o/ harmonize with /e/ in the suffixes.
−
Examples: sab-a = sabira, fun-a = funira, sib-a = sibira, som-a, sek-a = sekera, simool-a = simoolera  
+
Examples: sab-a = sab-ir-a, fun-a = fun-ir-a, sib-a = sib-ir-a, som-a = som-er-a, sek-a = sekera, simool-a = simool-er-a.  
 
|-
 
|-
 
|'''Consonant inventory'''
 
|'''Consonant inventory'''
−
|There are mainly 20 consonants in Luganda: [p, b, m, w, f, v, t, d, n, l, s, z, c, j, y, ny, k, g, ŋ, nÿ ]. Bilabials [p, b, m], labiodentals [f, v], alveolars [t, d, n, l, s, z], alveopatal [nÿ], palatals [c, J,nnya], velars [k, g, ŋ], semivowels [w,y].Each of those consonants can combine with any vowel to form a syllable. All consonants can be  long with the exception of [w,y,l]. A long consonant is one that is pronounced with force as compared to one that is single.  
+
|There are 19 consonants in Luganda: /p b m w f v t d n l s z c ɟ ɳ k g ŋ /. Bilabials /p b m/, labiodentals /f v/, alveolars /t d n l s z/, palatals/ /c ɟ ɳ/, velars /k g ŋ/, semivowels /w, j/. Each of those consonants can combine with any vowel to form a syllable. All consonants can be  long with the exception of /w y l/. /b/ has the allophone [β] between vowels, /n/ has the allophone [ɱ] before labiodentals /f v/.  
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''Consonantal length and Combinations'''  
+
|'''Consonantal Combinations'''  
−
|[m] is followed by bilabials. [n] is followed by all other consonants except [l]. [n] is followed by all alveolars ecept [l]. [ŋ] is followed by all velars.  
+
|Nasals which preceed plosives have to have the same place of articulation as plosives. /m/ is followed by bilabials. [n] is followed by all other consonants except [l/. /n/ is followed by all alveolars except /l/. /ŋ/ is followed by all velars.  
 
|-
 
|-
−
'''Semi vowel combinations'''  
+
|'''Semi vowel combinations'''  
−
|All can be followed by a semivowel except labiodentals, [f, v]. [f, v] cannot be followed by [w]. [s,z,c,J,nÿ] are not followed by [y]. [ŋ] does not allow combining with [y].  
+
|All consonants can be followed by a semivowel except labiodentals /f v/. /f v/ cannot be followed by /w/. /s z c ɟ] are not followed by /j/. /ŋ/ does not allow combining with /j/.  
−
Allophonetic sounds include: [β, ɱ,  ɽ, l]
+
 
|-
 
|-
 
|'''Tone'''
 
|'''Tone'''
−
|Luganda is a pitch-accent or a two tone language. Tone in the roots of uttarances can be arranged as HL or HH. Sometimes a resultant HF tone may occur. The two basic tones are modified by downstepping and downdrifting.
+
|Luganda is a two tone language with two tone levels. A third falling tone can be analysed as a combination of HL. Tone in the roots of uttarances can be arranged as HL or HH. The two basic tones are modified by downstepping and downdrifting. Changes in the pitch of a syllable triggers a change meaning of a word. For instance, the word okubala can be marked in two different ways: when all the syllables are marked with high tones, òkúbálá, the word will mean 'to count'; when only the penultimate syllable is marked high, òkùbálà, the word will mean 'to yield' or 'to bear fruit'.
 +
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
|'''Syllable Structure'''
 
|'''Syllable Structure'''
−
|Basic syllable structures: V, CV, CV:, C:V, C:V:, NCV, NCV:, Cw/yV, C:w/yV, C:w/yV:, NCw/yV, N
+
|Basic syllable structures: V, CV, CV:, C:V, C:V:, NCV, NCV:, CWV, C:WV, C:WV:, NCWV, N. (N stands for any nasal, W stands for the glides /w j/)
 
|-
 
|-
 
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''
 
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''
−
|In the following fields you describe some of the basic morpho-syntactic parameters of [your language]
 
 
|-
 
|-
−
| '''morphological classification (1)'''
+
|'''Morphological classification (1)'''
−
| Luganda is principally/basically agglutinative, which in many cases exhibit modifications in the roots of verbs when particular affixes are added.
+
|Luganda is principally/basically agglutinative, which in many cases exhibit modifications in the roots of verbs when particular affixes are added. Among the affixes present in Luganda are: prefixes, suffixes '''and infixes.''' However, as to whether Luganda has infixes or not is a contetious issue.
 
|-
 
|-
−
| '''morphological classification (2)'''
+
|'''Morphological classification (2)'''
−
|Luganda is generally a head-marking language at both phrase and sentence level. For instance, Omwana (N) omuto (Adj) akuba (V) embwa (Obj) [A little child is beating a dog]. In pronominalisation forms, it is possible to have a dependent marking in the verb phrase. For instance, Omwana omuto agikuba. [A little child is beating it]. A- [Subj], -gi- [Obj], kub-a [V].
+
|Luganda is generally a head-marking language at both phrase and sentence level. For instance, Omwana (N) omuto (Adj)akuba (V) embwa (OBJ).
 +
See this annotation:
 +
<Phrase>23603</Phrase>
 +
 
 +
In pronominalisation forms, it is possible to have a dependent marking in the verb phrase. For instance, Omwana omuto agikuba. [A little child is beating it]. A- [Subj], -gi- [Obj], kub-a [V].
 
|-
 
|-
 
|'''Nominal Phrases'''
 
|'''Nominal Phrases'''
−
|In the following fields we aim for a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents
+
|In the following fields we aim for a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents.
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''syntactic structure
+
|'''syntactic structure'''
−
'''|In this field you describe the linear order of elements in the noun phrase
+
|'''|The unmarked constituent order is SVO.
 
|-
 
|-
−
|nominal modification
+
|'''Nominal modification'''
−
|In this field you indicate the basic types of nominal modifiers (adjectives, relative clauses, adpositions...)
+
|Luganda is one of the Bantu languages with a noun class system (sometimes referred to as gender). Of the 23 Bantu noun classes, Luganda has 21. For further information about the Luganda noun class system, consult the following page: [[A comparative analysis of Runyankore Rukiga and Luganda pronominal agreement]].
 
|-
 
|-
−
|nominal specification
+
|'''Nominal specification'''
−
|In this field you list the nominal specifiers. Does [your language] have determiners, demonstratives (deixis), numerals, quantifiers. Are there affixes expressing reference, deixis.  
+
|To specify a noun, Luganda uses determiners, demonstratives, numerals, quantifiers and nominal specifiers.  
 
|-
 
|-
−
|possession
+
|'''Possession'''
−
|Luganda uses pronouns to indicate possession in different grammatical persons.  
+
|Luganda possessor roots are specified as suffixes in in different grammatical persons.  
−
1st person Singular, –ange
+
{|
−
1st person Plural, -affe
+
!Person
−
2nd person singular, -o
+
!Singular
−
2nd person plural, -ammwe
+
!Plural
−
3rd person singular, -e
+
−
3rd person plural, -abwe
+
 
|-
 
|-
−
|pronominal system
+
|1st
−
| In this field you indicate if [your language] has free pronoun forms? Are pronouns marked for their grammatical function (object versus subject pronouns)? Does your language have bound pronouns (affixes) or pronoun doubling? Are reflexives expressed by pronouns?
+
| -ange
 +
| -affe
 +
|-
 +
| 2nd
 +
| -o
 +
| -ammwe
 +
|-
 +
|3rd
 +
| -e
 +
| -abwe
 +
|}
 +
|-
 +
|'''Pronominal system'''
 +
|Luganda has both free and bound pronoun forms. All pronouns are marked for their grammatical functions: there are subject and object pronouns. All pronouns in Luganda appear also as prefixes. They also function as subject and object markers.
 +
|-
 +
|
 +
|The free pronoun forms are:
 +
{|
 +
!Person
 +
!Singular
 +
!Plural
 +
|-
 +
|1st
 +
|Nze
 +
|Ffe
 +
|-
 +
|2nd
 +
|Ggwe
 +
|Mmwe
 +
|-
 +
|3rd
 +
|Ye
 +
|Bo
 +
|}
 +
|-
 +
|'''Subject and Object Personal pronouns'''
 +
|Subject Pronouns
 +
{|
 +
!Person
 +
!Singular
 +
!Plural
 +
|-
 +
|1st
 +
|n-
 +
|tu-
 +
|-
 +
|2nd
 +
|o-
 +
|mu-
 +
|-
 +
|3rd
 +
|a-
 +
|ba-
 +
|}
 +
|-
 +
|'''Object Pronouns'''
 +
|
 +
{|
 +
!Person
 +
!Singular
 +
!Plural
 +
|-
 +
|1st
 +
| -n-
 +
| -tu-
 +
|-
 +
|2nd
 +
| -ku-
 +
| -ba-
 +
|-
 +
|3rd
 +
| -mu-
 +
| -ba-
 +
|}
 +
|-
 +
|'''Subject pronouns: example sentences'''
 +
|<Phrase>22940</Phrase>
 +
<Phrase>22945</Phrase>
 +
|-
 +
|'''Object pronouns: examples'''
 +
|<Phrase>22946</Phrase>
 +
<Phrase>22951</Phrase>
 
|-
 
|-
 
|'''Verbal Phrases'''
 
|'''Verbal Phrases'''
−
|In the following fields serve for the description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents
+
|In the following fields a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents is given.
 
|-
 
|-
−
|word order
+
|Word order
−
|In this field you indicate the basic word order of your language (SOV, SOV ...)
+
|The word order in Luganda is SVO.
 
|-
 
|-
−
|TAM  
+
|'''TAM'''
−
|In this field you indicate which tense and/or aspects are morphologically or tonally marked; does [your language] make use of periphrastic tense or aspect constructions?
+
|A Luganda verb is agglutinable for 3 tenses (this is however still debatable, some scholars say the tenses are six): the present tense, the past and the future. See the examples here: http://typecraft.org/TCEditor/1225/. However, there are different aspects within these tenses.
 
|-
 
|-
−
|infinitival forms
+
|'''Mood'''
−
|In this field you indicate if [your language] makes use of an infinitive marker? How many infinitival forms does your language have?
+
|Luganda makes use of the following moods: imperative mood, conditional mood, subjunctive mood, indicative mood and infinitive mood. There are notable changes that occur on application of imperative mood. In second person singular, the person is not manifest on the verb; second person plural, third person singular and plural, the person is manifest. In subjunctive mood, the notable change is that, the FV "a" changes into "e" in all persons. Conditional mood is both morphhologically and periphrastically marked on the verb.
 
|-
 
|-
−
|verbal constructions
+
|'''Infinitival forms'''
−
|In this field you indicate if [your language] has ditransitive constructions, serial verb constructions or complex verb forms composed of several verbs. Does your language have so called light verbs, perhaps only used to indicate a certain tense or aspect?
+
|Luganda has one infinitive form marked by (o)ku-. It should be noted that all Luganda verbs are bound morphs, except about two only that appear as free morphs. The infinitive (o)ku- relates to the 15Oku noun class.
 +
|-
 +
|'''Verbal constructions'''
 +
|Luganda has transitive, intransitive, ditranstive and auxiliary  verbs. A Luganda verb is glutinable for person, tense, aspect, and mood. Luganda verbs are also known to take on verb extensions common in Bantu languages including causative, applicative, reflexive, reciprocal, capable, passive. Here we only illustrate the applicative. <Phrase>13980</Phrase>, <Phrase>14005</Phrase>.
 +
 
 +
 
 
|-
 
|-
 
|'''Adpositions'''
 
|'''Adpositions'''
−
|In this field you indicate if [your language[ makes use of prepositions or postpositions. Does your language have spatial nouns? Does your language use adpositions or particles to indicate grammatical relations between the verb and a nominal argument?
+
|Luganda has prepositions at both word and phrase level. E.g mu ‘in’, ‘among’, ‘within’, ‘to’, ‘from’; ku ‘at’, ‘on’, ‘to’; e ‘to’ etc. At phrase level, they appear as, waggulu ku… ‘on top of…’, waggulu wa… ‘above’ etc. 
 +
In indicating the grammatical relation between the verb and the noun, Luganda concordial agreements based on the noun class system.
 
|-
 
|-
 
|'''Complementation'''
 
|'''Complementation'''
 
| In this field you describe complementation strategies. Does [your language] make use of complementizers?
 
| In this field you describe complementation strategies. Does [your language] make use of complementizers?
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''Special Properties of [your language]
+
|'''Special Properties of Luganda
−
| In this field you should mention properties of [your language] which did not fit into any of the other categories mentioned in this template
+
| Negative sentences in Luganda are usually formed by prefixing si- for 1st person singular (this replaces the 1st person personal pronoun, n-). For all other persons, the prefix te- is used coming before the subject pronoun. Depending on the morpho-phonological environment, the negators, si- and te- change. In environments where the negator comes but not next to a verb, it is an independent entity.
 
|-
 
|-
−
|'''Short Bibliography
+
|'''Demonstratives'''
 +
|Luganda, has different forms of demonstratives that correspond to the Luganda noun class system. These demonstratives express spatial relations in three distinct ways: proximate [-no], intermediate [-o] (distal) and most distal [-li] (non-proximal).
 +
Examples: Omuti guno gwange, This tree is mine; Omuti ogwo gwange, That tree is mine; Omuti guli gwange, The other tree is mine.
 +
|-
 +
|'''Luganda Orthography'''
 +
|The current Luganda orthography was standardised 1947. This orthography uses the Roman Alphabet. In this spelling system short and long vowels as well as short and long consonants are indicated. The short vowel and consonant are written singly while long vowels and consonants are written double. All vowels (a, e, i, o, u) can be double, see these examples: omukeeka (mat), maama (mummy), ekibiina (class/group), omuwuulu (bachelor), emmeeme (soul). All consonants can be double except /l, r, h, w, y). For example: omubbi (thief), ettama (cheek) etc. 
 +
|-
 +
|'''Short Bibliography'''
 +
|
 +
#Ashton, Ethel O., and others (1954) A Luganda Grammar, London: Longmans, Green.
 +
#Murphy, John D. (1972) Luganda-English Dictionary. Catholic University of America Press
 +
#Chesswas, J. D. (1963) Essentials of Luganda. Oxford University Press
 +
#Kiingi, K.B. (2009) Enkuluze ya Oluganda eya e Makerere, olusunsula 2a, Kampala: Fountain Publishers.
 
|-
 
|-
−
 
−
|}
 

Latest revision as of 07:15, 24 August 2011

By Medadi Erisa Ssentanda

Feature Description
Phonological Features
Vowel inventory Luganda has only 5 vowel phonemes: / a e i o u /. Any of them can be long or short.

/i/ high, front; /u/ high, back; /e/ mid, front; /o/ mid, back; /a/ front, low.

Vowel harmony

Nominal Vowel harmony

Vowel harmony in Luganda relates to the Luganda vowel chart, which contains only five vowels. The vowel on the noun class determines the initial vowel that the noun takes on. The Luganda noun classes allow only three vowels, namely /u i a/. The occurrence of any of those vowels on a noun class determines the initial vowel in this manner /u/ harmonizes with /o/, /i/ harmonizes with /e/ and /a/ harmonizes with /a/. Examples, omuti, emiti, amata.
Verbal Vowel harmony This harmony occurs on suffixes only. It follows this manner: verbs roots whose last syllable has /a u i/ harmonize with /i/ in the suffixes. Verbs whose roots last syllable has /e o/ harmonize with /e/ in the suffixes.

Examples: sab-a = sab-ir-a, fun-a = fun-ir-a, sib-a = sib-ir-a, som-a = som-er-a, sek-a = sekera, simool-a = simool-er-a.

Consonant inventory There are 19 consonants in Luganda: /p b m w f v t d n l s z c ɟ ɳ k g ŋ /. Bilabials /p b m/, labiodentals /f v/, alveolars /t d n l s z/, palatals/ /c ɟ ɳ/, velars /k g ŋ/, semivowels /w, j/. Each of those consonants can combine with any vowel to form a syllable. All consonants can be long with the exception of /w y l/. /b/ has the allophone [β] between vowels, /n/ has the allophone [ɱ] before labiodentals /f v/.
Consonantal Combinations Nasals which preceed plosives have to have the same place of articulation as plosives. /m/ is followed by bilabials. [n] is followed by all other consonants except [l/. /n/ is followed by all alveolars except /l/. /ŋ/ is followed by all velars.
Semi vowel combinations All consonants can be followed by a semivowel except labiodentals /f v/. /f v/ cannot be followed by /w/. /s z c ɟ] are not followed by /j/. /ŋ/ does not allow combining with /j/.
Tone Luganda is a two tone language with two tone levels. A third falling tone can be analysed as a combination of HL. Tone in the roots of uttarances can be arranged as HL or HH. The two basic tones are modified by downstepping and downdrifting. Changes in the pitch of a syllable triggers a change meaning of a word. For instance, the word okubala can be marked in two different ways: when all the syllables are marked with high tones, òkúbálá, the word will mean 'to count'; when only the penultimate syllable is marked high, òkùbálà, the word will mean 'to yield' or 'to bear fruit'.
Syllable Structure Basic syllable structures: V, CV, CV:, C:V, C:V:, NCV, NCV:, CWV, C:WV, C:WV:, NCWV, N. (N stands for any nasal, W stands for the glides /w j/)
Morpho-syntactic Features
Morphological classification (1) Luganda is principally/basically agglutinative, which in many cases exhibit modifications in the roots of verbs when particular affixes are added. Among the affixes present in Luganda are: prefixes, suffixes and infixes. However, as to whether Luganda has infixes or not is a contetious issue.
Morphological classification (2) Luganda is generally a head-marking language at both phrase and sentence level. For instance, Omwana (N) omuto (Adj)akuba (V) embwa (OBJ).

See this annotation:

Omwana omuto akuba embwa
“The young/little child is beating a dog”
Omwana
omuana
IV1child
N
omuto
omuto
IV1young
N
akuba
akuba
3SGSBJbeatFV
V
embwa
enembwa
IV9dog
N


In pronominalisation forms, it is possible to have a dependent marking in the verb phrase. For instance, Omwana omuto agikuba. [A little child is beating it]. A- [Subj], -gi- [Obj], kub-a [V].

Nominal Phrases In the following fields we aim for a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents.
syntactic structure The unmarked constituent order is SVO.
Nominal modification Luganda is one of the Bantu languages with a noun class system (sometimes referred to as gender). Of the 23 Bantu noun classes, Luganda has 21. For further information about the Luganda noun class system, consult the following page: A comparative analysis of Runyankore Rukiga and Luganda pronominal agreement.
Nominal specification To specify a noun, Luganda uses determiners, demonstratives, numerals, quantifiers and nominal specifiers.
Possession Luganda possessor roots are specified as suffixes in in different grammatical persons.
Person Singular Plural
1st -ange -affe
2nd -o -ammwe
3rd -e -abwe
Pronominal system Luganda has both free and bound pronoun forms. All pronouns are marked for their grammatical functions: there are subject and object pronouns. All pronouns in Luganda appear also as prefixes. They also function as subject and object markers.
The free pronoun forms are:
Person Singular Plural
1st Nze Ffe
2nd Ggwe Mmwe
3rd Ye Bo
Subject and Object Personal pronouns Subject Pronouns
Person Singular Plural
1st n- tu-
2nd o- mu-
3rd a- ba-
Object Pronouns
Person Singular Plural
1st -n- -tu-
2nd -ku- -ba-
3rd -mu- -ba-
Subject pronouns: example sentences
Nsoma ekitabo
“I am reading a book”
Nsoma
nsoma
1SGreadFV
V
ekitabo
ekitabo
IV7book
N
Basoma ekitabo
“they are reading a book”
Basoma
basoma
they3PLSBJreadFV
V
ekitabo
ekitabo
IV7book
N
Object pronouns: examples
Ankuba
“S/he is beating me”
Ankuba
ankuba
3PSGSBJ1PSGOBJbeatFV
V
Mumukuba
“You are beating him/her”
Mumukuba
mumukuba
2PLSBJ2SGOBJbeatFV
V
Verbal Phrases In the following fields a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents is given.
Word order The word order in Luganda is SVO.
TAM A Luganda verb is agglutinable for 3 tenses (this is however still debatable, some scholars say the tenses are six): the present tense, the past and the future. See the examples here: http://typecraft.org/TCEditor/1225/. However, there are different aspects within these tenses.
Mood Luganda makes use of the following moods: imperative mood, conditional mood, subjunctive mood, indicative mood and infinitive mood. There are notable changes that occur on application of imperative mood. In second person singular, the person is not manifest on the verb; second person plural, third person singular and plural, the person is manifest. In subjunctive mood, the notable change is that, the FV "a" changes into "e" in all persons. Conditional mood is both morphhologically and periphrastically marked on the verb.
Infinitival forms Luganda has one infinitive form marked by (o)ku-. It should be noted that all Luganda verbs are bound morphs, except about two only that appear as free morphs. The infinitive (o)ku- relates to the 15Oku noun class.
Verbal constructions Luganda has transitive, intransitive, ditranstive and auxiliary verbs. A Luganda verb is glutinable for person, tense, aspect, and mood. Luganda verbs are also known to take on verb extensions common in Bantu languages including causative, applicative, reflexive, reciprocal, capable, passive. Here we only illustrate the applicative.
Basekulira omwami kasooli
“They are pounding maize for the chief/husband”
Basekulira
basekulira
3PLpoundAPPLFV
V
omwami
omwami
IV1chief/husband
N
kasooli
kasooli
maize
N
,
Matovu yasengukira wa?
“Where did Matovu shift to?”
Matovu
matovu
 
Np
yasengukira
yasengukira
3PLSGPASTshiftAPPLFV
V
wa?
wa?
where
PROint

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Adpositions Luganda has prepositions at both word and phrase level. E.g mu ‘in’, ‘among’, ‘within’, ‘to’, ‘from’; ku ‘at’, ‘on’, ‘to’; e ‘to’ etc. At phrase level, they appear as, waggulu ku… ‘on top of…’, waggulu wa… ‘above’ etc.

In indicating the grammatical relation between the verb and the noun, Luganda concordial agreements based on the noun class system.

Complementation In this field you describe complementation strategies. Does [your language] make use of complementizers?
Special Properties of Luganda Negative sentences in Luganda are usually formed by prefixing si- for 1st person singular (this replaces the 1st person personal pronoun, n-). For all other persons, the prefix te- is used coming before the subject pronoun. Depending on the morpho-phonological environment, the negators, si- and te- change. In environments where the negator comes but not next to a verb, it is an independent entity.
Demonstratives Luganda, has different forms of demonstratives that correspond to the Luganda noun class system. These demonstratives express spatial relations in three distinct ways: proximate [-no], intermediate [-o] (distal) and most distal [-li] (non-proximal).

Examples: Omuti guno gwange, This tree is mine; Omuti ogwo gwange, That tree is mine; Omuti guli gwange, The other tree is mine.

Luganda Orthography The current Luganda orthography was standardised 1947. This orthography uses the Roman Alphabet. In this spelling system short and long vowels as well as short and long consonants are indicated. The short vowel and consonant are written singly while long vowels and consonants are written double. All vowels (a, e, i, o, u) can be double, see these examples: omukeeka (mat), maama (mummy), ekibiina (class/group), omuwuulu (bachelor), emmeeme (soul). All consonants can be double except /l, r, h, w, y). For example: omubbi (thief), ettama (cheek) etc.
Short Bibliography
  1. Ashton, Ethel O., and others (1954) A Luganda Grammar, London: Longmans, Green.
  2. Murphy, John D. (1972) Luganda-English Dictionary. Catholic University of America Press
  3. Chesswas, J. D. (1963) Essentials of Luganda. Oxford University Press
  4. Kiingi, K.B. (2009) Enkuluze ya Oluganda eya e Makerere, olusunsula 2a, Kampala: Fountain Publishers.
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