Presented here is an initiative for constructing an environment enabling the enumeration of verb constructions cross-linguistically. The aims are:
- For each language, that the enumeration be complete and transparent;
- Across languages, that the enumerations be comparable.
The environment includes a labeling system which, for any verb construction of a given language, provides a template for that construction type displaying its argument structure and other properties, in a fashion as transparent as possible. The template is constructed from a universally established inventory of labeling primitives.
The initiative has started with, on the one hand, a rather extensive inventory of Verb Constructions in Norwegian (based on the TROLL 1989 work, NorKompLeks 1996, and Norsource 2007), and on the other, a comparative survey of closely related languages of the Volta Basin Area (supported by The Legon-Trondheim project on Ghanaian languages). Thus both scenarios mentioned above are being instantiated.
The characterization of a construction type relates to at least the following parameters, when applicable:
- diathesis/argument operations (such as passive, causativisation, applicative formation),
- syntactic valency,
- semantic participants,
- particular patterns of agreement, including coreference patterns (such as 'equi' and 'raising' patterns, argument sharing, secondary predication), tense/aspect agreement, and subject and object marking,
- 'full' vs 'expletive' elements. NOT included is modification and syntactic processes not particular to the formation or modification of argument structure.
The basic structural parts of a Template are referred to as slots. In the slot specification, the following conventions are observed:
- Slots are interconnected by '-' (hyphen).
- Distinct items inside a slot are interconnected by '_' (underline).
- An item label containing neither ‘-‘ nor ‘_’ is an uninterrupted string of letters. If it acts as a complex label, the internal composition is indicated by alternation between small and capital letters (however, no labels are distinguished in terms of CAP vs. not).
Constructions with a Verb as head have a Template structure with maximum five slots:
- Slot 1: POS of the head, and diathesis information (e.g.: 'V_pas' for passive diathesis; 'V' alone if the construction is active).
- Slot 2: Valency: transitivity specification - intr, tr, ditr, ... (see list below) (if the construction is passive, the valence given is that of its corresponding active form).
- Slot 3: Dependent Specification: comments on syntactic and referential properties of specific arguments – see list below.
- Slot 4: Participant Roles.
- Slot 5: Situation Type: a label for the situation type expressed by the construction, written in CAPS
Slots 1 and 2 are obligatorily filled, the others not. A slot not specified is not displayed; however, the labels defined for the various slots are distinct, hence no specification can be misread with regard to which slot it fits into. Likewise, no labels are distinguished in terms of CAP vs. not.
The following template exemplifies the notation (with an English example sentence):
(1)
v-tr-ag_affincrem-COMPLETED_MONODEVMNT
the boy eats the cake
The template reads as:
- Slot 1: The head is V;
- Slot 2: the syntactic frame is transitive;
- Slot 4: the thematic roles expressed are 'agent' and 'incrementally affected';
- Slot 5: the situation type is (partially characterized as) 'completed monotonic development'.
Nothing here occupies Slot 3. (Since neither 'ag_affincrem' nor 'COMPLETED_MONODEVMNT' is a defined slot 3-specification, there is no ambiguity as to which slot is here empty.)
The following template has specification for the first three slots (from Norwegian, with gloss and translation):
(2)
v-trScpr-scObNrgCse_scAdj
han sang rommet tomt
“he sang the room empty”
| rommet |
| rom | et |
| roomOBJ | DEFSGNEUT |
| CN |
| tomt |
| tom | t |
| emptySC | SGNEUT |
| ADJ |
This template reads as:
- Slot 1: The head is V;
- Slot 2: the syntactic frame is transitive with a secondary ('small clause') predicate;
- Slot 3: the secondary predicate is predicated of the object, which is a 'non-argument', i.e., does not have a semantic argument relation to the verb, and expresses the result of a causation; moreover, the secondary predicate is headed by an adjective.
If a construction has a verbal complement, or is a series of verbs, where there is reason to comment on each verbal domain, the construction is entered as a sequence of two (or more) v-constructions, where each has the argument frame instantiated by the verb in question. The v-constructions are separated by double hyphen. After the first slot, which indicates the kind of construction, there is a slot with information on how constituents from the different v-constructions interrelate. The following is an example of a Serial Verb Construction in Akan, where 'sv' indicates this type:
3)
sv-objIDsu_aspID--v-tr-ag_ejct--v-tr-th_endpt-CONTACTEJECTION
This template reads as:
- Slot 1: The construction is an SVC;
- Slot 2: The object of the first clause is (referentially) identical to the subject of the second clause, and aspect (PST) is identical across the clauses;
- Slot 3: The v-constructions: the first v-construction has a transitive verb, and its participant roles are 'agent and ejected'; the second v-construction also has a transitive verb, with the participant roles 'theme' and 'endpoint' (notice that in each of these frames, there is no slot 3-specification, but both have slot 4-specification);
- Slot 4: The whole construction expresses the situation-type 'CONTACTEJECTION', that is, 'ejection with the ejected obtaining contact with an expressed entity'.
- v-intrImpers
SIT-TYPE: PHENOM
det regner
det regner
“it rains ”
| regner |
| regn | er |
| rain | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intrImpersPrtcl
SIT-TYPE: PHENOM_TELIC
det klarner opp
det klarner opp
“it clears up”
| klarner |
| klarn | er |
| clear | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intrImpersObl
ROLE: loc
SIT-TYPE: SEMELFACTIVE
det kvekker i Ola
det kvekker i Ola
“Ola startles”
| kvekker |
| kvekk | er |
| startle | PRES |
| Vitr |
det sprekker i glasset
det sprekker i glasset
“the glass breaks apart”
| sprekker |
| sprekk | er |
| crack | PRES |
| Vitr |
| glasset |
| glass | et |
| glass | NEUTSGDEF |
| CN |
ROLE: loc
SIT-TYPE: ACTIVITY
det synger i fjellene
det synger i fjellene
“it sings in the mountains”
| synger |
| syng | er |
| sing | PRES |
| Vitr |
| fjellene |
| fjell | ene |
| mountain | DEFPL |
| CN |
- v-intrDirPresentational
ROLE: agmover
SIT-TYPE: MOTION
det springer en mann
#det springer en mann
“there is a man running”
| springer |
| spring | er |
| run | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intrDirPresentational
ROLE: agmover
SIT-TYPE: ENDPNTMOTION
det springer en mann hit
det springer en mann hit
“there is a man running to here”
| springer |
| spring | er |
| run | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intrDirPresentational
ROLE: thmover
SIT-TYPE: MOTION
det ruller en ball
#det ruller en ball
“there is a ball rolling”
| ruller |
| rull | er |
| roll | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intrDirPresentational
ROLE: thmover
SIT-TYPE: ENDPNTMOTION
det ruller en ball hit
det ruller en ball hit
“a ball is rolling here”
| ruller |
| rull | er |
| roll | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intrPresentationalLoc
ROLE: ag_loc
SIT-TYPE: POSTURE_LOC
det sitter en mann i stolen
det sitter en mann i stolen
“there is a man sitting in the chair”
| sitter |
| sitt | er |
| sit | PRES |
| Vitr |
| stolen |
| stol | en |
| chair | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN |
det sitter en mann her
det sitter en mann her
“there is a man sitting here”
| sitter |
| sitt | er |
| sit | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-trPresentational
ROLE: ben_th
SIT-TYPE: PENDINGSTATE
det venter ham en ulykke
det venter ham en ulykke
“there awaits him an accident”
| venter |
| vent | er |
| await | PRES |
| Vtr |
det tilkommer ham hundre kroner
det tilkommer ham hundre kroner
“he can claim a hundred kroner”
| tilkommer |
| tilkom | er |
| to-come | PRES |
| Vtr |
| hundre |
| hundre |
| hundred |
| CARD |
| kroner |
| krone | r |
| kroner | INDEFPL |
| CN |
- v-intr
ROLE: ag
SIT-TYPE: ACTIVITY / SEMELFACTIVE
gutten hopper
gutten hopper
“the boy jumps”
| gutten |
| gutt | en |
| boySBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN |
| hopper |
| hopp | er |
| jump | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intrPrtcl
ROLE: ag
SIT-TYPE: SUSTAINEDACTIVITY
Ola driver på
#Ola driver på
“Ola keeps on”
| driver |
| driv | er |
| keep | PRES |
| Vitr |
ROLE: th
SIT-TYPE: SUSTAINEDACTIVITY
regnet varer ved
regnet varer ved
“the rain persists”
| regnet |
| regn | et |
| rainSBJ | DEFSGNEUT |
| N |
- v-intrPrtcl
ROLE: ag
SIT-TYPE: COMPLETEDACTIVITY
Ola stopper opp
maskineriet stopper opp
“the machinery comes to a hold”
| maskineriet |
| maskineri | et |
| machinerySBJ | DEFSGNEUT |
| Np |
| stopper |
| stopp | er |
| stop | PRES |
| Vitr |
ROLE: th
SIT-TYPE: COMPLETEDACTIVITY
regnet holder opp
regnet holder opp
“the rain ceases”
| regnet |
| regn | et |
| rainSBJ | DEFSGNEUT |
| CN |
| holder |
| hold | er |
| hold | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intr
ROLE: agsens
SIT-TYPE: SENSING_PROTR
gutten lytter
gutten lytter
“the boy listens”
| gutten |
| gutt | en |
| boySBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN |
| lytter |
| lytt | er |
| listen | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intr
ROLE: th
SIT-TYPE: PROCESS
isen smelter
isen smelter
“the ice melts”
| isen |
| is | en |
| iceSBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN |
| smelter |
| smelt | er |
| melt | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intr
ROLE: exp
SIT-TYPE: EXPERIENCING_PROTR
gutten fryser
gutten fryser
“the boy feels cold”
| gutten |
| gutt | en |
| boySBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN |
| fryser |
| frys | er |
| freeze | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intrDir
ROLE: agmover
SIT-TYPE: MOTION
gutten løper
gutten løper
“the boy is running”
| gutten |
| gutt | en |
| boySBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN |
- v-intrDir
ROLE: thmover
SIT-TYPE: MOTION
ballen ruller
ballen ruller
“the ball is rolling”
| ballen |
| ball | en |
| ballSBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN |
| ruller |
| rull | er |
| roll | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intrDir
ROLE: orientedobj
SIT-TYPE: PUREORIENTATION
pilen peker mot nord
pilen peker mot nord
“the arrow points towards north”
| pilen |
| pil | en |
| arrowSBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN |
| peker |
| pek | er |
| point | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intrDir
ROLE: orientedobj
SIT-TYPE: PATHCONSTELLATION
veien går mot nord
veien går mot nord
“the road goes towards north”
| veien |
| vei | en |
| roadSBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN |
- v-intrDir
ROLE: orientedobj
SIT-TYPE: LOCOMODEVELOPMENT
turen går mot nord
turen går mot nord
“the tour goes towards north”
| turen |
| tur | en |
| tourSBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN |
- v-intr-suDECL
ROLE: thSit
SIT-TYPE: NONHABITUAL
at han sover hender
at han sover hender
“that he sleeps occurs”
| sover |
| sov | er |
| sleep | PRES |
| Vitr |
| hender |
| hend | er |
| occur | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intr-suYN
ROLE: thSit
SIT-TYPE: ASSESS
hvorvidt han kommer beror
hvorvidt han kommer beror på deg
“whether he comes depends on you”
| hvorvidt |
| hvorvidt |
| whether |
| COMP |
| kommer |
| kom | er |
| come | PRES |
| Vitr |
| beror |
| bero | r |
| depend | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intr-suWH
ROLE: thSit
SIT-TYPE: ASSESS
??hvem som kommer beror
hvem som kommer beror på deg
“who comes depends on you”
| kommer |
| kom | er |
| come | PRES |
| Vitr |
| beror |
| bero | r |
| depend | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intr-suAbsinf
ROLE: thSit
SIT-TYPE: ASSESS
å motta penger for politiske verv stinker
å motta penger for politiske verv stinker
“receiving money for political positions sucks”
| penger |
| penge | r |
| money | INDEFPL |
| CN |
| politiske |
| politisk | e |
| political | INDEFPL |
| ADJ |
| stinker |
| stink | er |
| suck | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intrObl
ROLE: ag_topic
SIT-TYPE: ABOUTNESS_ACTIVITY
jeg snakker om Ola
jeg snakker om Ola
“I talk about Ola”
| snakker |
| snakk | er |
| talk | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intrObl
ROLE: ag_loc
SIT-TYPE: LOCATION
hun bor i Finnmark
hun bor i Finnmark
“she lives in Finnmark”
| Finnmark |
| finnmark |
| Finnmark |
| Np |
ROLE: th_loc
SIT-TYPE: LOCATION
Hamningberg ligger i Finnmark
Hamningberg ligger i Finnmark
“Hamningberg lies in Finnmark”
| Hamningberg |
| hamningberg |
| HamningbergSBJ |
| Np |
| ligger |
| ligg | er |
| lie | PRES |
| Vitr |
| Finnmark |
| finnmark |
| Finnmark |
| Np |
- v-intrObl
ROLE: ag_affincrem
SIT-TYPE: NONCOMPLETED_MONODEVMNT
hun spiser av eplet
hun spiser av eplet
“she eats of the apple”
| spiser |
| spis | er |
| eat | PRES |
| Vitr |
| eplet |
| eple | t |
| apple | NEUTSGDEF |
| CN |
- v-intrObl
ROLE: ag_thincrem
SIT-TYPE: NONCOMPLETED_MONODEVMNT
hun leser i boken
hun leser i boken
“she is reading in the book”
- v-intrObl
ROLE: ag_activated
SIT-TYPE: ACTIVATION
Ola rører på statuen
Ola rører på statuen
“Ola touches the statue OR: Ola makes the statue move a little ('Activation')”
| statuen |
| statue | n |
| statue | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN |
- v-intrObl-oblRefl
ROLE: ag_activated
SIT-TYPE: ACTIVATION
Ola leer på seg
Ola leer på seg
“Ola moves [a little]”
- v-intrObl-oblPRTOFsubj
ROLE: exp_locth
SIT-TYPE: PARTWHOLE_EXPERIENCING
jeg fryser på ryggen
jeg fryser på ryggen
“I feel cold on my back”
| fryser |
| frys | er |
| freeze | PRES |
| Vitr |
| ryggen |
| rygg | en |
| back | DEFSGMASC |
| N |
- v-intrImplicobjObl
ROLE: ag_th_csdloc
SIT-TYPE: RENDERING_IN_POSITION
han sølte på duken
han sølte på duken
“he spilled on the tablecloth”
| sølte |
| søl | te |
| spill | PAST |
| Vitr |
| duken |
| duk | en |
| tablecloth | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN |
han kledde på gutten
han kledde på gutten
“he dressed the boy”
| kledde |
| kle | de |
| dress | PAST |
| Vitr |
| gutten |
| gutt | en |
| boy | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN |
- v-intrImplicobjObl-oblRefl
ROLE: ag_th_csdloc
SIT-TYPE: RENDERING_IN_POSITION
han sølte på seg
han sølte på seg
“he spilled on himself”
| sølte |
| søl | te |
| spille | PAST |
| Vitr |
han kledde på seg
han kledde på seg
“he dressed himself”
| kledde |
| kle | dde |
| dress | PAST |
| Vitr |
- v-intrObl-oblDECL
ROLE: ag_topic
SIT-TYPE: ABOUTNESS_ACTIVITY
de snakker om at det er for sent
de snakker om at det er for sent
“they talk about it being too late”
| snakker |
| snakk | er |
| talk | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intrObl-oblYN
ROLE: ag_topic
SIT-TYPE: PROPOSITIONALATTITUDE_ACTIVITY
de lurer på hvorvidt det er for sent
de lurer på hvorvidt det er for sent
“they wonder whether it is too late”
| lurer |
| lur | er |
| wonder | PRES |
| Vitr |
| hvorvidt |
| hvorvidt |
| whether |
| COMP |
- v-intrObl-oblWH
ROLE: ag_topic
SIT-TYPE: PROPOSITIONALATTITUDE_ACTIVITY
de lurer på hvem som kommer
de lurer på hvem som kommer
“they wonder who comes”
| lurer |
| lur | er |
| wonder | PRES |
| Vitr |
| kommer |
| kom | er |
| come | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intrObl-oblEqSuInf
ROLE: ag_topic
SIT-TYPE: PROPOSITIONALATTITUDE_ACTIVITY
han håper på å komme
han håper på å komme
“he hopes to be able to come”
- v-intrObl-oblEqSuInf
ROLE: ag_topic
SIT-TYPE: HABITUAL
- Ola driver med å skrive
Ola does writing
- v-intrPrtclObl-oblEqSuInf
ROLE: ag_topic
SIT-TYPE: ACTIVITY
Ola driver på med å skrive
Ola driver på med å skrive
“Ola is engaged in writing”
| driver |
| driv | er |
| keep | PRES |
| Vitr |
| skrive |
| skriv | e |
| write | INF |
| Vitr |
- v-intrObl-oblAbsinf
ROLE: ag_topic
SIT-TYPE: ABOUTNESS_ACTIVITY
de snakker om å reise til Mars
de snakker om å reise til Mars
“they talk about travelling to Mars”
| snakker |
| snakk | er |
| talk | PRES |
| Vitr |
| reise |
| reis | e |
| travel | INF |
| Vitr |
- v-intrOblRais-suNrg_oblRaisInf
ROLE: thSit
SIT-TYPE: EXHIBACT
han later til å komme
han later til å komme
“he appears to be coming”
| later |
| lat | er |
| appear | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intrPrtclOblRais-suNrg_oblRaisInf
ROLE: thSit
SIT-TYPE: EXHIBACT
han ser ut til å komme
han ser ut til å komme
“he appears to be coming”
- v-intrAdv
ROLE:
SIT-TYPE:
han fungerer godt
han fungerer godt
“he functions well”
| fungerer |
| funger | er |
| function | PRES |
| Vitr |
v-epistmodal
ROLE:
SIT-TYPE:
han kan komme
han kan komme
“he can come”
- v-modaldir
ROLE:
SIT-TYPE:
- han må ut
'he must out' (= 'he has to go out')
- v-perf
ROLE:
SIT-TYPE:
han har kommet
han har kommet
“he has come”
- v-intrScpr-scLght_scAdj
ROLE: thSit
SIT-TYPE: EPISODIC_PROPTY
huset står tomt
huset står tomt
“the house stands empty”
| huset |
| hus | et |
| houseSBJ | NEUTDEFSG |
| CN |
eiendommen ligger brakk
eiendommen ligger brakk
“the property lies non-attended”
| eiendommen |
| eiendom | en |
| propertySBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN |
| ligger |
| ligg | er |
| lie | PRES |
| Vitr |
| brakk |
| brakk |
| non-attendedSC |
| |
- v-intrScpr-scLght_scPredprtcl
ROLE: thSit
SIT-TYPE: EPISODIC_PROPTY
gutten fremstår som mistenkt
gutten fremstår som mistenkt
“the boy emerges as a suspect”
| gutten |
| gutt | en |
| boySBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN |
| fremstår |
| fremstå | r |
| emerge | PRES |
| Vitr |
| mistenkt |
| mistenkt |
| suspected |
| ADJ |
Ola stiller som forsvarer
Ola stiller som forsvarer
“Ola functions as defender”
| stiller |
| still | er |
| pose | PRES |
| Vitr |
| forsvarer |
| forsvarer |
| defender |
| CN |
- v-intrScpr-scSuNrg_scAdj
ROLE: thSit
SIT-TYPE: EXHIBPROPTY
gutten virker syk
gutten virker syk
“the boy seems sick”
| gutten |
| gutt | en |
| boySBJ | DEFSGMASC |
| N |
| virker |
| virk | er |
| seem | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intrScpr-scSuNrg_scN
ROLE: thSit
SIT-TYPE: EXHIBPROPTY
gutten synes en leder
gutten synes en leder
“the boy seems to be a leader”
| gutten |
| gutt | en |
| boySBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN |
- v-intrScpr-scSuNrg_scPP
ROLE: thSit
SIT-TYPE: EXHIBPROPTY
gutten virker i orden
gutten virker i orden
“the boy seems in order”
| gutten |
| gutt | en |
| boySBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN |
| virker |
| virk | er |
| seem | PRES |
| Vitr |
- v-intrScpr-scSuNrg_scPredprtcl
ROLE: thSit
SIT-TYPE: EXHIBPROPTY
gutten virker som en feiging
gutten virker som en feiging
“the boy seems like a coward”
| gutten |
| gutt | en |
| boySBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN |
| virker |
| virk | er |
| seem | PRES |
| Vitr |
| feiging |
| feig | ing |
| coward | NMLZ |
| CN |
- v-intrScpr-scSuNrg_scInf
ROLE: thSit
SIT-TYPE: EXHIBACT
han synes å komme
han synes å komme
“he seems to come”
- v-intrScpr-scSuNrg_scBareinf
ROLE: thSit
SIT-TYPE: EXHIBACT
han synes komme
?han synes komme
“he seems to come”
| komme |
| kom | me |
| comeSC | INF |
| Vitr |