Verbconstructions cross-linguistically - Introduction
Presented here is an initiative for constructing an environment enabling the enumeration of verb constructions cross-linguistically. The aims are:
- For each language, that the enumeration be complete and transparent;
- Across languages, that the enumerations be comparable.
The environment includes a labeling system which, for any verb construction of a given language, provides a template for that construction type displaying its argument structure and other properties, in a fashion as transparent as possible. The template is constructed from a universally established inventory of labeling primitives. The initiative has started with, on the one hand, a rather extensive inventory of Verb Constructions in Norwegian (based on the TROLL 1989 work, NorKompLeks 1996, and Norsource 2007), and on the other, a comparative survey of closely related languages of the Volta Basin Area (supported by The Legon-Trondheim project on Ghanaian languages). Thus both scenarios mentioned above are being instantiated. The characterization of a construction type relates to at least the following parameters, when applicable:
- diathesis/argument operations (such as passive, causativisation, applicative formation),
- syntactic valency,
- semantic participants,
- particular patterns of agreement, including coreference patterns (such as 'equi' and 'raising' patterns, argument sharing, secondary predication), tense/aspect agreement, and subject and object marking,
- 'full' vs 'expletive' elements. NOT included is modification and syntactic processes not particular to the formation or modification of argument structure.
The basic structural parts of a Template are referred to as slots. In the slot specification, the following conventions are observed:
- Slots are interconnected by '-' (hyphen).
- Distinct items inside a slot are interconnected by '_' (underline).
- An item label containing neither ‘-‘ nor ‘_’ is an uninterrupted string of letters. If it acts as a complex label, the internal composition is indicated by alternation between small and capital letters (however, no labels are distinguished in terms of CAP vs. not).
Constructions with a Verb as head have a Template structure with maximum five slots:
- Slot 1: POS of the head, and diathesis information (e.g.: 'V_pas' for passive diathesis; 'V' alone if the construction is active).
- Slot 2: Valency: transitivity specification - intr, tr, ditr, ... (see list below) (if the construction is passive, the valence given is that of its corresponding active form).
- Slot 3: Dependent Specification: comments on syntactic and referential properties of specific arguments – see list below.
- Slot 4: Participant Roles.
- Slot 5: Situation Type: a label for the situation type expressed by the construction, written in CAPS
Slots 1 and 2 are obligatorily filled, the others not. A slot not specified is not displayed; however, the labels defined for the various slots are distinct, hence no specification can be misread with regard to which slot it fits into. Likewise, no labels are distinguished in terms of CAP vs. not.
The following template exemplifies the notation (with an English example sentence):
(1) v-tr-ag_affincrem-COMPLETED_MONODEVMNT
the boy eats the cake
The template reads as:
- Slot 1: The head is V;
- Slot 2: the syntactic frame is transitive;
- Slot 4: the thematic roles expressed are 'agent' and 'incrementally affected';
- Slot 5: the situation type is (partially characterized as) 'completed monotonic development'.
Nothing here occupies Slot 3. (Since neither 'ag_affincrem' nor 'COMPLETED_MONODEVMNT' is a defined slot 3-specification, there is no ambiguity as to which slot is here empty.)
The following template has specification for the first three slots (from Norwegian, with gloss and translation):
(2) v-trScpr-scObNrgCse_scAdj
| han |
| han |
| heSBJ3PSGNOM |
| PN |
| sang |
| sang |
| singPAST |
| Vitr |
| rommet | |
| rom | et |
| roomOBJ | DEFSGNEUT |
| CN | |
| tomt | |
| tom | t |
| emptySC | SGNEUT |
| ADJ | |
This template reads as:
- Slot 1: The head is V;
- Slot 2: the syntactic frame is transitive with a secondary ('small clause') predicate;
- Slot 3: the secondary predicate is predicated of the object, which is a 'non-argument', i.e., does not have a semantic argument relation to the verb, and expresses the result of a causation; moreover, the secondary predicate is headed by an adjective.
If a construction has a verbal complement, or is a series of verbs, where there is reason to comment on each verbal domain, the construction is entered as a sequence of two (or more) v-constructions, where each has the argument frame instantiated by the verb in question. The v-constructions are separated by double hyphen. After the first slot, which indicates the kind of construction, there is a slot with information on how constituents from the different v-constructions interrelate. The following is an example of a Serial Verb Construction in Akan, where 'sv' indicates this type:
3)
sv-objIDsu_aspID--v-tr-ag_ejct--v-tr-th_endpt-CONTACTEJECTION
This template reads as:
- Slot 1: The construction is an SVC;
- Slot 2: The object of the first clause is (referentially) identical to the subject of the second clause, and aspect (PST) is identical across the clauses;
- Slot 3: The v-constructions: the first v-construction has a transitive verb, and its participant roles are 'agent and ejected'; the second v-construction also has a transitive verb, with the participant roles 'theme' and 'endpoint' (notice that in each of these frames, there is no slot 3-specification, but both have slot 4-specification);
- Slot 4: The whole construction expresses the situation-type 'CONTACTEJECTION', that is, 'ejection with the ejected obtaining contact with an expressed entity'.
- v-intrImpers
SIT-TYPE: PHENOM
det regner
| det |
| det |
| itSBJEXPLET |
| PN |
| regner | |
| regn | er |
| rain | PRES |
| Vitr | |
- v-intrImpersPrtcl
SIT-TYPE: PHENOM_TELIC
det klarner opp
| det |
| det |
| itSBJEXPLET |
| PN |
| klarner | |
| klarn | er |
| clear | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| opp |
| opp |
| up |
| PRT |
- v-intrImpersObl
ROLE: loc
SIT-TYPE: SEMELFACTIVE
det kvekker i Ola
| det |
| det |
| itSBJEXPLET |
| PN |
| kvekker | |
| kvekk | er |
| startle | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| i |
| i |
| inOBLLOC |
| PREP |
| Ola |
| ola |
| ola |
| Np |
det sprekker i glasset
| det |
| det |
| itSBJEXPLET |
| PN |
| sprekker | |
| sprekk | er |
| crack | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| i |
| i |
| inOBLLOC |
| PREP |
| glasset | |
| glass | et |
| glass | NEUTSGDEF |
| CN | |
ROLE: loc
SIT-TYPE: ACTIVITY
det synger i fjellene
| det |
| det |
| itSBJEXPLET |
| PN |
| synger | |
| syng | er |
| sing | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| i |
| i |
| inOBLLOC |
| PREP |
| fjellene | |
| fjell | ene |
| mountain | DEFPL |
| CN | |
- v-intrDirPresentational
ROLE: agmover
SIT-TYPE: MOTION
det springer en mann
| det |
| det |
| itSBJEXPLET |
| PN |
| springer | |
| spring | er |
| run | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| en |
| en |
| aINDEFSGCOMM |
| DET |
| mann |
| mann |
| man |
| CN |
- v-intrDirPresentational
ROLE: agmover
SIT-TYPE: ENDPNTMOTION
det springer en mann hit
| det |
| det |
| itSBJEXPLET |
| PN |
| springer | |
| spring | er |
| run | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| en |
| en |
| aINDEFSGCOMM |
| DET |
| mann |
| mann |
| man |
| CN |
| hit |
| hit |
| hereENDPNT |
| ADV |
- v-intrDirPresentational
ROLE: thmover
SIT-TYPE: MOTION
det ruller en ball
| det |
| det |
| itSBJEXPLET |
| PN |
| ruller | |
| rull | er |
| roll | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| en |
| en |
| aINDEFSGCOMM |
| DET |
| ball |
| ball |
| ball |
| CN |
- v-intrDirPresentational
ROLE: thmover
SIT-TYPE: ENDPNTMOTION
det ruller en ball hit
| det |
| det |
| SBJEXPLET |
| PN |
| ruller | |
| rull | er |
| roll | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| en |
| en |
| INDEFSGMASC |
| DET |
| ball |
| ball |
| ball |
| N |
| hit |
| hit |
| to-hereENDPNT |
| ADV |
- v-intrPresentationalLoc
ROLE: ag_loc
SIT-TYPE: POSTURE_LOC
det sitter en mann i stolen
| det |
| det |
| itSBJEXPLET |
| PN |
| sitter | |
| sitt | er |
| sit | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| en |
| en |
| aINDEFSGCOMM |
| DET |
| mann |
| mann |
| man |
| CN |
| i |
| i |
| inOBLLOC |
| PREP |
| stolen | |
| stol | en |
| chair | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN | |
det sitter en mann her
| det |
| det |
| itSBJEXPLET |
| PN |
| sitter | |
| sitt | er |
| sit | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| en |
| en |
| aINDEFSGCOMM |
| DET |
| mann |
| mann |
| man |
| CN |
| her |
| her |
| hereOBLLOC |
| ADVm |
- v-trPresentational
ROLE: ben_th
SIT-TYPE: PENDINGSTATE
det venter ham en ulykke
| det |
| det |
| SBJEXPLET |
| PN |
| venter | |
| vent | er |
| await | PRES |
| Vtr | |
| ham |
| ham |
| SGMASCOBJind |
| PN |
| en |
| en |
| INDEFSGMASCOBJ |
| DET |
| ulykke |
| ulykke |
| accident |
| N |
det tilkommer ham hundre kroner
| det |
| det |
| itSBJEXPLET |
| PN |
| tilkommer | |
| tilkom | er |
| to-come | PRES |
| Vtr | |
| ham |
| ham |
| himMASCSG |
| PN |
| hundre |
| hundre |
| hundred |
| CARD |
| kroner | |
| krone | r |
| kroner | INDEFPL |
| CN | |
- v-intr
ROLE: ag
SIT-TYPE: ACTIVITY / SEMELFACTIVE
gutten hopper
| gutten | |
| gutt | en |
| boySBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN | |
| hopper | |
| hopp | er |
| jump | PRES |
| Vitr | |
- v-intrPrtcl
ROLE: ag
SIT-TYPE: SUSTAINEDACTIVITY
Ola driver på
| Ola |
| ola |
| olaSBJ |
| Np |
| driver | |
| driv | er |
| keep | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| på |
| på |
| on |
| ADV |
ROLE: th
SIT-TYPE: SUSTAINEDACTIVITY
regnet varer ved
| regnet | |
| regn | et |
| rainSBJ | DEFSGNEUT |
| N | |
| varer | |
| var | er |
| last | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| ved |
| ved |
| by |
| ADV |
- v-intrPrtcl
ROLE: ag
SIT-TYPE: COMPLETEDACTIVITY
Ola stopper opp
| maskineriet | |
| maskineri | et |
| machinerySBJ | DEFSGNEUT |
| Np | |
| stopper | |
| stopp | er |
| stop | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| opp |
| opp |
| up |
| ADV |
ROLE: th
SIT-TYPE: COMPLETEDACTIVITY
regnet holder opp
| regnet | |
| regn | et |
| rainSBJ | DEFSGNEUT |
| CN | |
| holder | |
| hold | er |
| hold | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| opp |
| opp |
| up |
| ADV |
- v-intr
ROLE: agsens
SIT-TYPE: SENSING_PROTR
gutten lytter
| gutten | |
| gutt | en |
| boySBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN | |
| lytter | |
| lytt | er |
| listen | PRES |
| Vitr | |
- v-intr
ROLE: th
SIT-TYPE: PROCESS
isen smelter
| isen | |
| is | en |
| iceSBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN | |
| smelter | |
| smelt | er |
| melt | PRES |
| Vitr | |
- v-intr
ROLE: exp
SIT-TYPE: EXPERIENCING_PROTR
gutten fryser
| gutten | |
| gutt | en |
| boySBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN | |
| fryser | |
| frys | er |
| freeze | PRES |
| Vitr | |
- v-intrDir
ROLE: agmover
SIT-TYPE: MOTION
gutten løper
| gutten | |
| gutt | en |
| boySBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN | |
| løper | |
| løp | er |
| run | PRES |
| Vitr | |
- v-intrDir
ROLE: thmover
SIT-TYPE: MOTION
ballen ruller
| ballen | |
| ball | en |
| ballSBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN | |
| ruller | |
| rull | er |
| roll | PRES |
| Vitr | |
- v-intrDir
ROLE: orientedobj
SIT-TYPE: PUREORIENTATION
pilen peker mot nord
| pilen | |
| pil | en |
| arrowSBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN | |
| peker | |
| pek | er |
| point | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| mot |
| mot |
| towards |
| PREP |
| nord |
| nord |
| north |
- v-intrDir
ROLE: orientedobj
SIT-TYPE: PATHCONSTELLATION
veien går mot nord
| veien | |
| vei | en |
| roadSBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN | |
| går | |
| gå | r |
| go | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| mot |
| mot |
| towards |
| PREP |
| nord |
| nord |
| north |
- v-intrDir
ROLE: orientedobj
SIT-TYPE: LOCOMODEVELOPMENT
turen går mot nord
| turen | |
| tur | en |
| tourSBJ | DEFSGCOMM |
| CN | |
| går | |
| gå | r |
| go | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| mot |
| mot |
| towards |
| PREP |
| nord |
| nord |
| north |
- v-intr-suDECL
ROLE: thSit
SIT-TYPE: NONHABITUAL
at han sover hender
| at |
| at |
| DECL |
| COMP |
| han |
| han |
| SBJ3PSGNOM |
| PN |
| sover | |
| sov | er |
| sleep | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| hender | |
| hend | er |
| occur | PRES |
| Vitr | |
- v-intr-suYN
ROLE: thSit
SIT-TYPE: ASSESS
hvorvidt han kommer beror
| hvorvidt |
| hvorvidt |
| whether |
| COMP |
| han |
| han |
| he3PSGNOM |
| PN |
| kommer | |
| kom | er |
| come | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| beror | |
| bero | r |
| depend | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| på |
| på |
| on |
| PREP |
| deg |
| deg |
| 2pSGACC |
| PN |
- v-intr-suWH
ROLE: thSit
SIT-TYPE: ASSESS
??hvem som kommer beror
| hvem |
| hvem |
| who |
| Wh |
| som |
| som |
| REL |
| kommer | |
| kom | er |
| come | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| beror | |
| bero | r |
| depend | PRES |
| Vitr | |
| på |
| på |
| on |
| PREP |
| deg |
| deg |
| you2SGACC |
| PN |
- v-intr-suAbsinf
ROLE: thSit
SIT-TYPE: ASSESS
å motta penger for politiske verv stinker
| å |
| å |
| toINF |
| COMP |
| motta |
| motta |
| receive |
| Vtr |
| penger | |
| penge | r |
| money | INDEFPL |
| CN | |
| for |
| for |
| for |
| PREP |
| politiske | |
| politisk | e |
| political | INDEFPL |
| ADJ | |
| verv |
| verv |
| position |
| CN |
| stinker | |
| stink | er |
| suck | PRES |
| Vitr | |