https://typecraft.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=Mary+Esther+Kropp+Dakubu&feedformat=atomTypeCraft - User contributions [en]2024-03-28T19:13:44ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.24.2https://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Niger-Congo_languages&diff=8125Talk:Niger-Congo languages2011-06-21T18:00:40Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: Created page with 'Since Gur is the name of a language family within Niger-Congo, not a language name, I have edited that. --~~~~'</p>
<hr />
<div>Since Gur is the name of a language family within Niger-Congo, not a language name, I have edited that. --[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 18:00, 21 June 2011 (UTC)</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Niger-Congo_languages&diff=8124Niger-Congo languages2011-06-21T17:58:16Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>Information about this language family in general can be found [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger-Congo_languages here].<br />
<br />
The following of the Niger-Congo languages are at present represented in the TC-wiki by:<br />
<br />
<br />
*the Ugandan Bantu language: [[Luganda]]<br />
*the Ugandan Bantu language: [[Runyankore-Rukiga]]<br />
<br />
*the West African language family: [[Gur]]<br />
<br />
*the Ghanaian language: [[Akan]]<br />
*the Ghanaian language: [[Ga]]<br />
*the Ghanaian language: [[Ewe]]<br />
<br />
<br />
* the Nigerian language: [[Edo]]</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Ga&diff=7988Typological Features Template for Ga2011-06-16T11:49:44Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>=='''[[User: Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu| Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] and Yvonne Ollennu'''==<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel inventory<br />
| Ga has seven oral vowels: a i e ɛ u o ɔ and five nasal vowels: ã ĩ ũ ɔ̃ ɛ̃. Double or consecutive copy vowels arise morphophonologically, but otherwise there are no long vowels.<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| Ga does not have ATR (or any other) harmony, althought when a vowel is added to an English loanword it often shows height and rounding harmony with the stem, eg. bɔɔlu "ball", sleti "(school) slate". There are assimilation rules for sequences of two vowels. <br />
Sequences of three vowels occur in the orthography but are always reduced in speech to two.<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| Ga Consonant Sounds: Stops p, t, k, kw, kp; b, d, g, gw, gb; Affricates ʧ, ʧw; ʤ, ʤw; Fricatives f, s, ʃ, ʃw; v, z: Nasal continuants m (ɱ), n, ɲ, ŋ, (ŋw), ŋm; Approximant l, Lateral (r). Sounds in () occur allophonically. The consonant p occurs only in loanwords and neologisms. <br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Tone <br />
|Ga has two tones and downstep. There are numerous lexical minimal pairs, in nouns, eg.''' bɔ́''' “dew”, '''bɔ̀''' “manner”, and especially in verbs, eg. '''bɛ̀''' “pinch”, '''bɛ́''' “be absent”. There are also a few cases of high-low falling tone, usually on word-final syllables, as in the verb '''hê''' “buy” when it occurs at the end of a sentence. They alternate with simple high tone in non-final contexts.<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|Basic syllable types are CV, V and N, each bearing a tone. When a syllable of shape N is word-final it is always pronounced [ŋ], but when it occurs initially it is homorganic with the following consonant. There are also syllables of shape CL, where L is the liquid or the retroflex, and bears tone, for example in the verb '''fl̀í''' "buy or sell on credit". Every lexical stem contains at least one CV syllable or a sequence CL+V. Many grammatical formatives consist of a V or an N syllable.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (1)<br />
|Ga is moderately agglutinating in respect of verbs. Simple (non-compound) singular nouns however are monomorphemic.<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (2)<br />
|Ga is generally head-marking at sentence and phrase levels, but case is not grammatically marked and there is no gender or nominal class. On the other hand, many Adjectives and the Indefinite Specifier ('''ko''') show number agreement with the head noun.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Nominal Phrases'''<br />
|The following fields describe some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents.<br />
|-<br />
|syntactic structure<br />
|The linear ordering in the Noun phrase is as follows: Identifier-Possessor-Modifier Noun-Head Noun-Adjective-Numeral-Indefinite Specifier-Determiner-Definite marker-Quantifier-Intensifier. An NP in which all of these positions are realized is not common, but the following shows all the positions: '''nɛkɛ Tɛte tso tsui agboi nyɔŋma komɛi lɛ fɛ̃ɛ p'''o, meaning something like "just all those several of Tettey's ten big wooden houses", literally 'that Tettey's wood houses big ten some the all indeed'.<br />
A minimal NP consists of a noun or pronoun. <br />
|-<br />
|nominal modification<br />
|The head of a nominal phrase may be modified by a possessive phrase, by adjectives, numbers and the other elements specified above, and by relative clauses. Many adjectives and the Indefinite specifier ('''ko''') agree in number with the head noun, as in '''tsu-i agbo-i ko-mɛi''' "some big houses", where the element after the hyphen in each word is a plural marker.<br />
|-<br />
|nominal specification<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|possession<br />
|Possession is expressed by simple juxtaposition Possessor-Possessum, as in '''Tɛte tsu''' "Tettey's house", except that if the Possessor is plural, the Possessum takes a prefix''' a'''-.<br />
|-<br />
|pronominal system<br />
| The independent (Absolute) pronoun form occurs as object and at the beginning of a sentence if focused or topicalized. Subject and possessive pronouns are prefixed to the verb or noun respectively.<br />
The independent pronouns are Singular: 1 '''mi''' 2 '''bo''' 3 '''lɛ''' Plural: 1 '''wɔ''' 2 '''nyɛ''' 3 '''amɛ''', all with Low tone.<br />
The prefixed pronouns differ from the independent only in the singular: 1 '''mi'''-, '''n'''- 2 '''o'''- 3 '''e'''-. As possessive prefixes the first and second singular have high tone and the rest have low. Subject pronouns acquire their tone from the aspect of the verb. There is also an indefinite 3rd person subject prefix '''a'''-, used when the actual agent is not specified, where other languages might use a passive.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Verbal Phrases'''<br />
|The following fields describe some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|word order<br />
|Ga is a strictly SVO language.<br />
|-<br />
|TAM <br />
|Aspect, mood, deixis and polarity are marked on the verb by a combination of prefixes and suffixes. Most aspect and mood prefixes are expressed segmentally after an NP subject but by tone on the preceding syllable when the subject is a pronoun prefix. The Aorist is expressed by downstep between a High tone-final subject and a High tone-initial verb - which means that often it is not expressed and the verb appears in its basic form.<br />
Other positive aspect markers are '''é'''- perfect, -'''ɔ''' habitual,''' ŋ'''- (or vowel length in the 2nd and 3rd singular) progressive, '''aá'''- future,''' á'''- subjunctive/imperative. <br />
Negative aspect markers are vowel length with high tone for the imperfectives, -'''kò''' perfect, -'''ŋ''' future.<br />
Subjunctive and imperative negation are marked by the pre-verb element '''ka''' in combination with the subjunctive prefix.<br />
<br />
|-<br />
|infinitival forms<br />
|Ga has no true infinitives. However a nominalized form occurs frequently as the complement of certain classes of verb.<br />
|-<br />
|verbal constructions<br />
| Most verbs in Ga may occur intransitively or transitively. Some also occur ditransitively. Serial verb constructions are common, usually limited to two verb phrases. Light verbs occur mainly in sentences expressing properties, and a few (different verbs) typically occur with unified objects.<br />
There is no passive, a general 3rd person agent pronoun being used instead (see note on pronominal system). <br />
|-<br />
|'''Adpositions'''<br />
|Postpositions in Ga may head both subjects and objects of sentences Formally they are identical to possessive phrases. There are very few true prepositions, but a number of verbs may head 'verbid' phrases that are more or less comparable to prepositional phrases. Prepositional or verbid phrases are invariably adjunctival. Postpositional phrases are rarely adjuncts, although they may occur in an adjunct headed by a verb(id).<br />
|-<br />
|'''Complementation'''<br />
| Complement clauses follow the verb. Depending on the verb, a complementizer may be optional or required. <br />
|-<br />
|'''Special Properties of Ga'''<br />
| Body part expressions are particularly common in this language, with a very wide range of metaphorical meanings.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Short Bibliography'''<br />
|Dakubu, M.E. Kropp ed., 2009. ''Ga-English Dictionary with English-Ga Index''. 2nd edition. Accra: Black Mask Publishers.<br />
Dakubu, M.E. Kropp, 2006. ''Parlons Ga, langue et culture d'Accra (Ghana)''. Paris: L'Harmattan. <br />
<br />
|}</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Ga&diff=7987Typological Features Template for Ga2011-06-16T11:47:31Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>=='''[[User: Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu| Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] and Yvonne Ollennu'''==<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel inventory<br />
| Ga has seven oral vowels: a i e ɛ u o ɔ and five nasal vowels: ã ĩ ũ ɔ̃ ɛ̃. Double or consecutive copy vowels arise morphophonologically, but otherwise there are no long vowels.<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| Ga does not have ATR (or any other) harmony, althought when a vowel is added to an English loanword it often shows height and rounding harmony with the stem, eg. bɔɔlu "ball", sleti "(school) slate". There are assimilation rules for sequences of two vowels. <br />
Sequences of three vowels occur in the orthography but are always reduced in speech to two.<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| Ga Consonant Sounds: Stops p, t, k, kw, kp; b, d, g, gw, gb; Affricates ʧ, ʧw; ʤ, ʤw; Fricatives f, s, ʃ, ʃw; v, z: Nasal continuants m (ɱ), n, ɲ, ŋ, (ŋw), ŋm; Approximant l, Lateral (r). Sounds in () occur allophonically. The consonant p occurs only in loanwords and neologisms. <br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Tone <br />
|Ga has two tones and downstep. There are numerous lexical minimal pairs, in nouns, eg.''' bɔ́''' “dew”, '''bɔ̀''' “manner”, and especially in verbs, eg. '''bɛ̀''' “pinch”, '''bɛ́''' “be absent”. There are also a few cases of high-low falling tone, usually on word-final syllables, as in the verb '''hê''' “buy” when it occurs at the end of a sentence. They alternate with simple high tone in non-final contexts.<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|Basic syllable types are CV, V and N, each bearing a tone. When a syllable of shape N is word-final it is always pronounced [ŋ], but when it occurs initially it is homorganic with the following consonant. There are also syllables of shape CL, where L is the liquid or the retroflex, and bears tone, for example in the verb '''fl̀í''' "buy or sell on credit". Every lexical stem contains at least one CV syllable or a sequence CL+V. Many grammatical formatives consist of a V or an N syllable.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (1)<br />
|Ga is moderately agglutinating in respect of verbs. Simple (non-compound) singular nouns however are monomorphemic.<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (2)<br />
|Ga is generally head-marking at sentence and phrase levels, but case is not grammatically marked and there is no gender or nominal class. On the other hand, many Adjectives and the Indefinite Specifier ('''ko''') show number agreement with the head noun.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Nominal Phrases'''<br />
|The following fields describe some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents.<br />
|-<br />
|syntactic structure<br />
|The linear ordering in the Noun phrase is as follows: Identifier-Possessor-Modifier Noun-Head Noun-Adjective-Numeral-Indefinite Specifier-Determiner-Definite marker-Quantifier-Intensifier. An NP in which all of these positions are realized is not common, but the following shows all the positions: '''nɛkɛ Tɛte tso tsui agboi nyɔŋma komɛi lɛ fɛ̃ɛ p'''o, meaning something like "just all those several of Tettey's ten big wooden houses", literally 'that Tettey's wood houses big ten some the all indeed'.<br />
A minimal NP consists of a noun or pronoun. <br />
|-<br />
|nominal modification<br />
|The head of a nominal phrase may be modified by a possessive phrase, by adjectives, numbers and the other elements specified above, and by relative clauses. Many adjectives and the Indefinite specifier ('''ko''') agree in number with the head noun, as in '''tsu-i agbo-i ko-mɛi''' "some big houses", where the element after the hyphen in each word is a plural marker.<br />
|-<br />
|nominal specification<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|possession<br />
|Possession is expressed by simple juxtaposition Possessor-Possessum, as in '''Tɛte tsu''' "Tettey's house", except that if the Possessor is plural, the Possessum takes a prefix''' a'''-.<br />
|-<br />
|pronominal system<br />
| The independent (Absolute) pronoun form occurs as object and at the beginning of a sentence if focused or topicalized. Subject and possessive pronouns are prefixed to the verb or noun respectively.<br />
The independent pronouns are Singular: 1 '''mi''' 2 '''bo''' 3 '''lɛ''' Plural: 1 '''wɔ''' 2 '''nyɛ''' 3 '''amɛ''', all with Low tone.<br />
The prefixed pronouns differ from the independent only in the singular: 1 '''mi'''-, '''n'''- 2 '''o'''- 3 '''e'''-. As possessive prefixes the first and second singular have high tone and the rest have low. Subject pronouns acquire their tone from the aspect of the verb. There is also an indefinite 3rd person subject prefix '''a'''-, used when the actual agent is not specified, where other languages might use a passive.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Verbal Phrases'''<br />
|The following fields describe some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|word order<br />
|Ga is a strictly SVO language.<br />
|-<br />
|TAM <br />
|Aspect, mood, deixis and polarity are marked on the verb by a combination of prefixes and suffixes. Most aspect and mood prefixes are expressed segmentally after an NP subject but by tone on the preceding syllable when the subject is a pronoun prefix. The Aorist is expressed by downstep between a High tone-final subject and a High tone-initial verb - which means that often it is not expressed and the verb appears in its basic form.<br />
Other positive aspect markers are '''é'''- perfect, -'''ɔ''' habitual,''' ŋ'''- (or vowel length in the 2nd and 3rd singular) progressive, '''aá'''- future,''' á'''- subjunctive/imperative. <br />
Negative aspect markers are vowel length with high tone for the imperfectives, -'''kò''' perfect, -'''ŋ''' future.<br />
Subjunctive and imperative negation are marked by the pre-verb element '''ka''' in combination with the subjunctive prefix.<br />
<br />
|-<br />
|infinitival forms<br />
|Ga has no true infinitives. However a nominalized form occurs frequently as the complement of certain classes of verb.<br />
|-<br />
|verbal constructions<br />
| Most verbs in Ga may occur intransitively or transitively. Some also occur ditransitively. Serial verb constructions are common, usually limited to two verb phrases. Light verbs occur mainly in sentences expressing properties, and a few (different verbs) typically occur with unified objects.<br />
There is no passive, a general 3rd person agent pronoun being used instead (see note on pronominal system). <br />
|-<br />
|'''Adpositions'''<br />
|Postpositions in Ga may head both subjects and objects of sentences Formally they are identical to possessive phrases. There are very few true prepositions, but a number of verbs may head 'verbid' phrases that are more or less comparable to prepositional phrases. Prepositional or verbid phrases are invariably adjunctival. Postpositional phrases are rarely adjuncts, although they may occur in an adjunct headed by a verb(id).<br />
|-<br />
|'''Complementation'''<br />
| Complement clauses follow the verb. Depending on the verb, a complementizer may be optional or required. <br />
|-<br />
|'''Special Properties of Ga'''<br />
| Body part expressions are particularly common in this language, with a very wide range of metaphor meanings.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Short Bibliography'''<br />
|Dakubu, M.E. Kropp ed., 2009. ''Ga-English Dictionary with English-Ga Index''. 2nd edition. Accra: Black Mask Publishers.<br />
Dakubu, M.E. Kropp, 2006. ''Parlons Ga, langue et culture d'Accra (Ghana)''. Paris: L'Harmattan. <br />
<br />
|}</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Ga&diff=7986Typological Features Template for Ga2011-06-16T11:45:58Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>=='''[[User: Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu| Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] and Yvonne Ollennu'''==<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel inventory<br />
| Ga has seven oral vowels: a i e ɛ u o ɔ and five nasal vowels: ã ĩ ũ ɔ̃ ɛ̃. Double or consecutive copy vowels arise morphophonologically, but otherwise there are no long vowels.<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| Ga does not have ATR (or any other) harmony, althought when a vowel is added to an English loanword it often shows height and rounding harmony with the stem, eg. bɔɔlu "ball", sleti "(school) slate". There are assimilation rules for sequences of two vowels. <br />
Sequences of three vowels occur in the orthography but are always reduced in speech to two.<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| Ga Consonant Sounds: Stops p, t, k, kw, kp; b, d, g, gw, gb; Affricates ʧ, ʧw; ʤ, ʤw; Fricatives f, s, ʃ, ʃw; v, z: Nasal continuants m (ɱ), n, ɲ, ŋ, (ŋw), ŋm; Approximant l, Lateral (r). Sounds in () occur allophonically. The consonant p occurs only in loanwords and neologisms. <br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Tone <br />
|Ga has two tones and downstep. There are numerous lexical minimal pairs, in nouns, eg.''' bɔ́''' “dew”, '''bɔ̀''' “manner”, and especially in verbs, eg. '''bɛ̀''' “pinch”, '''bɛ́''' “be absent”. There are also a few cases of high-low falling tone, usually on word-final syllables, as in the verb '''hê''' “buy” when it occurs at the end of a sentence. They alternate with simple high tone in non-final contexts.<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|Basic syllable types are CV, V and N, each bearing a tone. When a syllable of shape N is word-final it is always pronounced [ŋ], but when it occurs initially it is homorganic with the following consonant. There are also syllables of shape CL, where L is the liquid or the retroflex, and bears tone, for example in the verb '''fl̀í''' "buy or sell on credit". Every lexical stem contains at least one CV syllable or a sequence CL+V. Many grammatical formatives consist of a V or an N syllable.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (1)<br />
|Ga is moderately agglutinating in respect of verbs. Simple (non-compound) singular nouns however are monomorphemic.<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (2)<br />
|Ga is generally head-marking at sentence and phrase levels, but case is not grammatically marked and there is no gender or nominal class. On the other hand, many Adjectives and the Indefinite Specifier ('''ko''') show number agreement with the head noun.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Nominal Phrases'''<br />
|The following fields describe some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents.<br />
|-<br />
|syntactic structure<br />
|The linear ordering in the Noun phrase is as follows: Identifier-Possessor-Modifier Noun-Head Noun-Adjective-Numeral-Indefinite Specifier-Determiner-Definite marker-Quantifier-Intensifier. An NP in which all of these positions are realized is not common, but the following shows all the positions: '''nɛkɛ Tɛte tso tsui agboi nyɔŋma komɛi lɛ fɛ̃ɛ p'''o, meaning something like "just all those several of Tettey's ten big wooden houses", literally 'that Tettey's wood houses big ten some the all indeed'.<br />
A minimal NP consists of a noun or pronoun. <br />
|-<br />
|nominal modification<br />
|The head of a nominal phrase may be modified by a possessive phrase, by adjectives, numbers and the other elements specified above, and by relative clauses. Many adjectives and the Indefinite specifier ('''ko''') agree in number with the head noun, as in '''tsu-i agbo-i ko-mɛi''' "some big houses".<br />
|-<br />
|nominal specification<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|possession<br />
|Possession is expressed by simple juxtaposition Possessor-Possessum, as in '''Tɛte tsu''' "Tettey's house", except that if the Possessor is plural, the Possessum takes a prefix''' a'''-.<br />
|-<br />
|pronominal system<br />
| The independent (Absolute) pronoun form occurs as object and at the beginning of a sentence if focused or topicalized. Subject and possessive pronouns are prefixed to the verb or noun respectively.<br />
The independent pronouns are Singular: 1 '''mi''' 2 '''bo''' 3 '''lɛ''' Plural: 1 '''wɔ''' 2 '''nyɛ''' 3 '''amɛ''', all with Low tone.<br />
The prefixed pronouns differ from the independent only in the singular: 1 '''mi'''-, '''n'''- 2 '''o'''- 3 '''e'''-. As possessive prefixes the first and second singular have high tone and the rest have low. Subject pronouns acquire their tone from the aspect of the verb. There is also an indefinite 3rd person subject prefix '''a'''-, used when the actual agent is not specified, where other languages might use a passive.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Verbal Phrases'''<br />
|The following fields describe some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|word order<br />
|Ga is a strictly SVO language.<br />
|-<br />
|TAM <br />
|Aspect, mood, deixis and polarity are marked on the verb by a combination of prefixes and suffixes. Most aspect and mood prefixes are expressed segmentally after an NP subject but by tone on the preceding syllable when the subject is a pronoun prefix. The Aorist is expressed by downstep between a High tone-final subject and a High tone-initial verb - which means that often it is not expressed and the verb appears in its basic form.<br />
Other positive aspect markers are '''é'''- perfect, -'''ɔ''' habitual,''' ŋ'''- (or vowel length in the 2nd and 3rd singular) progressive, '''aá'''- future,''' á'''- subjunctive/imperative. <br />
Negative aspect markers are vowel length with high tone for the imperfectives, -'''kò''' perfect, -'''ŋ''' future.<br />
Subjunctive and imperative negation are marked by the pre-verb element '''ka''' in combination with the subjunctive prefix.<br />
<br />
|-<br />
|infinitival forms<br />
|Ga has no true infinitives. However a nominalized form occurs frequently as the complement of certain classes of verb.<br />
|-<br />
|verbal constructions<br />
| Most verbs in Ga may occur intransitively or transitively. Some also occur ditransitively. Serial verb constructions are common, usually limited to two verb phrases. Light verbs occur mainly in sentences expressing properties, and a few (different verbs) typically occur with unified objects.<br />
There is no passive, a general 3rd person agent pronoun being used instead (see note on pronominal system). <br />
|-<br />
|'''Adpositions'''<br />
|Postpositions in Ga may head both subjects and objects of sentences Formally they are identical to possessive phrases. There are very few true prepositions, but a number of verbs may head 'verbid' phrases that are more or less comparable to prepositional phrases. Prepositional or verbid phrases are invariably adjunctival. Postpositional phrases are rarely adjuncts, although they may occur in an adjunct headed by a verb(id).<br />
|-<br />
|'''Complementation'''<br />
| Complement clauses follow the verb. Depending on the verb, a complementizer may be optional or required. <br />
|-<br />
|'''Special Properties of Ga'''<br />
| Body part expressions are particularly common in this language, with a very wide range of metaphor meanings.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Short Bibliography'''<br />
|Dakubu, M.E. Kropp ed., 2009. ''Ga-English Dictionary with English-Ga Index''. 2nd edition. Accra: Black Mask Publishers.<br />
Dakubu, M.E. Kropp, 2006. ''Parlons Ga, langue et culture d'Accra (Ghana)''. Paris: L'Harmattan. <br />
<br />
|}</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Ga&diff=7982Typological Features Template for Ga2011-06-16T10:39:03Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>=='''[[User: Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu| Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] and Yvonne Ollennu'''==<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel inventory<br />
| Ga has seven oral vowels: a i e ɛ u o ɔ and five nasal vowels: ã ĩ ũ ɔ̃ ɛ̃. Double or consecutive copy vowels arise morphophonologically, but otherwise there are no long vowels.<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| Ga does not have ATR (or any other) harmony, althought when a vowel is added to an English loanword it often shows height and rounding harmone=y with the stem, eg. bɔɔlu "ball", sleti "(school) slate". There are assimilation rules for sequences of two vowels. <br />
Sequences of three vowels occur in the orthography but are always reduced in speech to two.<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| Ga Consonant Sounds: Stops p, t, k, kw, kp; b, d, g, gw, gb; Affricates ʧ, ʧw; ʤ, ʤw; Fricatives f, s, ʃ, ʃw; v, z: Nasal continuants m (ɱ), n, ɲ, ŋ, (ŋw), ŋm; Approximant l, Lateral (r). Sounds in () occur allophonically. <br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Tone<br />
|Ga has two tones and downstep. There are numerous lexical minimal pairs, in nouns and especially in verbs. There are also a few cases of high-low falling tone, usually on word-final syllables. They alternate with simple high tone in non-final contexts.<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|Basic syllable types are CV, V and N, each bearing a tone. There are also syllables of shape CL, where L is the liquid or the retroflex, and bears tone. Every lexical stem contains at least one CV syllable or a sequence CL+V. Many grammatical formatives are V or N syllables.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (1)<br />
|Ga is moderately agglutinating in respect of verbs. Simple (non-compound) singular nouns however are monomorphemic.<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (2)<br />
|Ga is generally head-marking at sentence and phrase levels, but case is not grammatically marked and there is no gender or nominal class. On the other hand, Adjectives and the Indefinite Specifier show number agreement with the head noun.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Nominal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields follows a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|syntactic structure<br />
|The linear ordering in the Noun phrase is as follows: Identifier-Possessor-Modifier Noun-Head Noun-Adjective-Numeral-Indefinite Specifier-Determiner-Definite marker-Quantifier-Intensifier. A minimal NP consists of a noun or pronoun. <br />
|-<br />
|nominal modification<br />
|The head of a nominal phrase may be modified by a possessive phrase, by adjectives, numbers and the other elements specified above, and by relative clauses. Many adjectives and the Indefinite specifier (ko) agree in number with the head noun.<br />
|-<br />
|nominal specification<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|possession<br />
|Possession is expressed by simple juxtaposition Possessor-Possessum, except that if the Possessor is plural, the Possessum takes a prefix a-.<br />
|-<br />
|pronominal system<br />
| The independent (Absolute) pronoun form occurs as object and at the beginning of a sentence if focused or topicalized. Subject and possessive pronouns are prefixed to the verb or noun respectively.<br />
The independent pronouns are Singular: 1 mi 2 bo 3 lɛ Plural: 1 wɔ 2 nyɛ 3 amɛ, all with Low tone.<br />
The prefixed pronouns differ from the independent only in the singular: 1 mi-, n- 2 o- 3 e-. As possessive prefixes the first and second singular have high tone and the rest have low. Subject pronouns acquire their tone from the aspect of the verb. There is also an indefinite 3rd person subject prefix a-, used when the actual agent is not specified, where other languages might use a passive.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Verbal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields serve for the description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|word order<br />
|Ga is a strictly SVO language.<br />
|-<br />
|TAM <br />
|Aspect, mood, deixis and polarity are marked on the verb by a combination of prefixes and suffixes. Most aspect and mood prefixes are expressed segmentally after an NP subject but by tone on the preceding syllable when the subject is a pronoun prefix. The Aorist is expressed by downstep between a High tone-final subject and a High tone-initial verb - which means that often it is not expressed and the verb appears in its basic form.<br />
|-<br />
|infinitival forms<br />
|Ga has no true infinitives. However a nominalized form occurs frequently as the complement of certain classes of verb.<br />
|-<br />
|verbal constructions<br />
| Most verbs in Ga may occur intransitively or transitively. Some also occur ditransitively. Serial verb constructions are common, usually limited to two verb phrases. Light verbs occur mainly in sentences expressing properties, and a few (different verbs) typically occur with unified objects.<br />
There is no passive, a general 3rd person agent pronoun being used instead (see note on pronominal system). <br />
|-<br />
|'''Adpositions'''<br />
|Postpositions in Ga may head both subjects and objects of sentences Formally they are identical to possessive phrases. There are very few true prepositions, but a number of verbs may head 'verbid' phrases that are more or less comparable to prepositional phrases. Prepositional or verbid phrases are invariably adjunctival. Postpositional phrases are rarely adjuncts.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Complementation'''<br />
| Complement clauses follow the verb. Depending on the verb, a complementizer may be optional or required. <br />
|-<br />
|'''Special Properties of Ga'''<br />
| Body part expressions are particularly common in this language, with a very wide range of metaphor meanings.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Short Bibliography'''<br />
|Dakubu, M.E. Kropp ed., 2009. ''Ga-English Dictionary with English-Ga Index''. 2nd edition. Accra: Black Mask Publishers.<br />
Dakubu, M.E. Kropp, 2006. ''Parlons Ga, langue et culture d'Accra (Ghana)''. Paris: L'Harmattan <br />
<br />
|}</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Ga&diff=7980Ga2011-06-16T10:22:21Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Ga<br />
|nativename = gã̀<br />
|states = Ghana<br />
|region = Accra<br />
|speakers = approx. 1,500,000<br />
|familycolor = Niger-Congo<br />
|fam2 = Kwa<br />
|script = <br />
|nation = <br />
|iso1=<br />
|iso3= <br />
|iso3=<br />
}}<br />
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<br />
Ga is represented with the following articles on the TC-wiki:<br />
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* ''' [[Ga_grammar]]'''<br />
*'''[[Typological_Features_Template_for_Ga]]'''</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=The_Legon_Trondheim_Linguistics_Project&diff=6286The Legon Trondheim Linguistics Project2010-12-18T11:13:57Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>This project was sponsored by NUFU ([http://www.uib.no/fa/intkont/nufu/nufu.htm NUFU]), and was a cooperation project from 1996 to 2009 between the University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, and the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim. The name '''The Legon Trondheim Linguistics Project''' is that by which the project is usually referred to, while its official name is '''Computational Lexicography, Typology and Adult Literacy'''. The Ghanaian coordinator was the Head of the Linguistics Department in office, counting altogether 6 coordinators: Prof. Kwesi Yankah, Dr. Kofi Saah, Prof. Akosua Aynidoho, Prof. Kweku Osam, Dr. Alex Dzameshie, Dr. Paul Agbedor, and (again) Dr. Kofi Saah. Prof. Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu (Language Centre, and Institute of African Studies, Legon) was the co-coordinator in Legon throughout the whole period, whereas Prof. Lars Hellan, NTNU, was the Norwegian coordinator throughout the whole period. The original initiative to the project was taken by (then Head of Department) Prof. Lawrence Boadi and Prof. Lars Hellan.<br />
<br />
Publications of the project include:<br />
<br />
1999 ''Ga-English Dictionary with English-Ga Index'' by M.E. Kropp Dakubu. Accra: Black Mask Ltd.<br />
<br />
2002 ''New Directions in Ghanaian Linguistics'' edited by Felix K. Ameka and E. Kweku Osam. Accra: Black Mask Ltd.<br />
<br />
2003 ''Studies in the Languages of the Volta Basin 1'' edited by M.E. Kropp Dakubu and E.K. Osam. Legon: Linguistics Dept.<br />
<br />
2004 ''Studies in the Languages of the Volta Basin 2'' edited by M.E. Kropp Dakubu and E.K. Osam. Legon: Linguistics Dept.<br />
<br />
2004 ''The Trondheim Lectures, an introduction to the structure of Akan: its verbal and multiverbal systems'' by E. Kweku Osam. Legon: Linguistics Dept.<br />
<br />
2005 ''Three Major Syntactic Structures in Akan: interrogatives, complementation and relativisation'' by L.A. Boadi. Accra: Black Mask Ltd.<br />
<br />
2005 ''Studies in the Languages of the Volta Basin 3'' edited by M.E. Kropp Dakubu and E.K. Osam. Legon: Linguistics Dept.<br />
<br />
2006 ''Akan Dictionary, pilot project: 1530 words.'' Legon: Linguistics Dept.<br />
<br />
2007 ''Studies in the Languages of the Volta Basin 4'', 2 Parts. Edited by M.E. Kropp Dakubu, G. Akanlig-Pare, E.K. Osam and K.K. Saah. Legon: Linguistics Dept.<br />
[[File:GaEnglish.jpg|right]] 2007 ''Gurene-English Dictionary with English-Gurene Glossary'' by M.E. Kropp Dakubu, S. Awinkene Atintono and E. Avea Nsoh. Legon: Linguistics Dept.<br />
<br />
2008 ''Studies in the Languages of the Volta Basin 5'' edited by M.E. Kropp Dakubu. Legon: Linguistics Dept.<br />
<br />
2008 ''Aspect and Modality in Kwa Languages'' edited by Felix K. Ameka and M.E. Kropp Dakubu. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
2009 ''Ga-English Dictionary with English-Ga Index.'' 2nd Edition. M.E. Kropp Dakubu. Accra: Black Mask Ltd.<br />
<br />
2010 ''Studies in the Languages of the Volta Basin 6'' edited by M.E. Kropp Dakubu, Nana Aba Amfo, E.K. Osam, K.K. Saah and G. Akanlig-Pare. Part 1: ''Verbs and Adjectives'', Part 2 '' Nominals, the Lexicon and Phonology'', Part 3 ''Identifying Verb Constructions Cross-Linguistically'', consisting of: [[Media: 1_Introlabels_SLAVOB-final.pdf|The system ]], [[Media: 2_Ga_appendix_SLAVOB-final.pdf|Ga Appendix ]], [[Media: 3_Norwegian_Appendix_plus_3_SLAVOB-final.pdf|Norwegian Appendix ]].. Legon: Linguistics Department.<br />
<br />
The project had its final funded year in 2009. The Final Report of the project ('Annual Report 2009') can be viewed here: [[Media:Final_report_NUFU.pdf|Final Report ]]<br />
<br />
A commentary to the Lexicography part of the project is given here: [[Media:NAD_2009_MEKD.pdf|M.E. Kropp Dakubu: Dictionary making and the public discourse: the University of Ghana experience ]]<br />
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[[Category:Funded Projects]]</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Typological_Features_Template_for_Akan&diff=4604Talk:Typological Features Template for Akan2010-03-31T10:02:44Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>Hi Lilian and Dorothee<br />
<br />
I think it reads much better now. But Lilian remember that the symbols for hy and hw are still not correct!--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 09:55, 31 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian and Mary Esther,<br />
<br />
I have made an attempt to thin out the text on vowels. One more round of editing is probably necessary. --[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee Beermann]] 09:45, 31 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hi again Lilian,<br />
I notice that before the words exemplifying consonants you have "Example n:" - what is the n for? <br />
I think the idea is to make the templates as simple and easy to use as possible, but accurate of course.<br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 16:58, 30 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Consonants: you have used the wrong symbols for 'hy' and 'hw' - use ɕ (character code 0255) and ɕʷ. The symbols for 'gy' and 'ky' are correct.<br />
<br />
Is it possible to make the table columns narrower? They seem too wide for the screen.<br />
<br />
You don't really need to write so many words - clear headings are enough I think.<br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 14:22, 23 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi again, here the missing vowels, Lilian - with courtesy from Mary Esther:<br />
<br />
'''Unadvanced vowels in Doulos SIL'''<br />
<br />
* Unadvanced High back ʊ (028A) or ʋ (028B) – doesn’t matter which but be consistent<br />
* Unadvanced Mid front ɛ (025B)<br />
* Unadvanced Mid back ɔ (0254)<br />
* Unadvanced High front ɩ (0269) or ɪ (026A) <br />
* Unadvanced Low (mid) a<br />
<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee Beermann]] 08:45, 12 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hi again <br />
There is still a font problem - the nasalized vowels (section B) don't look right. Also at the end of this section on nasalized vowels, where you say that certain vowels are only nasalised in Fante, there is something wrong - 'o' appears twice!<br />
<br />
Under Long vowels - can all 9 or 10 vowels occur as long vowels? Can all the nasalized vowels occur long? You should state specifically which ones can or can't.<br />
Example 2 only demonstrates 4 vowel letters - can't you think of one that shows all 7?<br />
<br />
Best, --[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 12:59, 9 March 2010 (UTC)Mary Esther<br />
<br />
Hi Mary Esther,<br />
Thanks alot for the corrections. Yes, I am having problems with the nasalized vowels. I am still working on it. It has something to do with the computer and the NTNU-server or something like that. I am still working on it. I will make sure the right ones are there :-)<br />
<br />
Thanks again.<br />
Lilian<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian<br />
<br />
I have just gone over the phonology section, and it seems to me you got started on the wrong foot, probably because of what was there already. I suggest you go straight to the 9/10 vowel system and only mention at the end of it that in the orthography the -Advanced vowels are written e and o, so that those letters stand for 2 sounds each. You could then use the 2 example sentences to demonstrate this, showing the phonetic vowels in the second line. <br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 12:35, 8 March 2010 (UTC)Mary Esther Dakubu<br />
<br />
Another point worthwhile thinking about has to do with the two annotated examples inserted in the phonology section. In particular the first one does not seem representative really, since what we would like to exemplify are the phonological features that are characteristic for Akan.<br />
Perhaps we can find better examples.<br />
<br />
Another point is that one should really make sure that one has these examples annotated for the phonological features that one discusses in this section of the template. That might not yet be the case. Hm... <br />
It might be necessary to go back into the database and improve somewhat on the annotation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 12:16, 8 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian, <br />
<br />
I used the keyboard to put in a nasalized ''ẽ''. I hope that was the vowel you were looking for. --[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 12:08, 8 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi again,<br />
<br />
I changed a little the opening text slightly, since I was worried that one highlighted in the old text certain dialects and forgot others.<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 11:38, 5 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian,<br />
<br />
Here something seems to have gone wrong with the representation of the third vowel. :)<br />
<br />
Vowels [o, 3, ), o] are only nasalised in the Fanti dialects.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Justus Turamyomwe|Justus Turamyomwe]] 11:56, 2 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Akan templates - comments ==<br />
<br />
Hello Lilian<br />
<br />
Some comments on the templates you have just started:<br />
<br />
General Akan <br />
<br />
1. I'm surprised you use the expression "Fanti Twi" - Fantes wouldn't like it. Just Fante is more normal - other dialects are called Twi. Also I am surprised that you spell them Asanti and Fanti instead of Asante and Fante, and Akuapem.<br />
<br />
2. Vowel inventory: there is some confusion between phonology and orthography here. The 7 "main vowels" are the orthographic representation, but there are in fact 9 or 10 vowels, depending on the dialect, which divide into 2 sets, one +ATR and one -ATR. In the orthography the mid +ATR and the high +ATR are collapsed, so that the letters e and o represent 2 contrastive vowels each. This should be clarified, because what the template is most interested in is the phonological contrasts. But the note that the orthography doesn't reflect all the contrasts is of course in order.<br />
<br />
3. nasalization - hasn't appeared properly on the high vowels. Are you sure you are using a Unicode 8 font? I strongly suggest Doulos SIL, or Charis SIL. If you type the material in Word and paste it in it should work very well.<br />
<br />
<br />
Asante template<br />
<br />
1. You are using the wrong symbol for the high front -ATR vowel - see comments above.<br />
<br />
2. The sentence on Vowel Harmony is very awkward and needs revision. Tongue Root Position is not a "system" - You need something like "The sequence of vowels within the word is governed by vowel harmony based on tongue root position. The vowels divide into two sets based on this feature..."<br />
<br />
<br />
Keep up the good work.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 11:54, 3 March 2010 (UTC)</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Typological_Features_Template_for_Akan&diff=4603Talk:Typological Features Template for Akan2010-03-31T09:55:25Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>Hi Lilian and Dorothee<br />
<br />
I think it read much better now. But Lilian remember that the symbols for hy and hw are still not correct!--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 09:55, 31 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian and Mary Esther,<br />
<br />
I have made an attempt to thin out the text on vowels. One more round of editing is probably necessary. --[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee Beermann]] 09:45, 31 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hi again Lilian,<br />
I notice that before the words exemplifying consonants you have "Example n:" - what is the n for? <br />
I think the idea is to make the templates as simple and easy to use as possible, but accurate of course.<br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 16:58, 30 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Consonants: you have used the wrong symbols for 'hy' and 'hw' - use ɕ (character code 0255) and ɕʷ. The symbols for 'gy' and 'ky' are correct.<br />
<br />
Is it possible to make the table columns narrower? They seem too wide for the screen.<br />
<br />
You don't really need to write so many words - clear headings are enough I think.<br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 14:22, 23 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi again, here the missing vowels, Lilian - with courtesy from Mary Esther:<br />
<br />
'''Unadvanced vowels in Doulos SIL'''<br />
<br />
* Unadvanced High back ʊ (028A) or ʋ (028B) – doesn’t matter which but be consistent<br />
* Unadvanced Mid front ɛ (025B)<br />
* Unadvanced Mid back ɔ (0254)<br />
* Unadvanced High front ɩ (0269) or ɪ (026A) <br />
* Unadvanced Low (mid) a<br />
<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee Beermann]] 08:45, 12 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hi again <br />
There is still a font problem - the nasalized vowels (section B) don't look right. Also at the end of this section on nasalized vowels, where you say that certain vowels are only nasalised in Fante, there is something wrong - 'o' appears twice!<br />
<br />
Under Long vowels - can all 9 or 10 vowels occur as long vowels? Can all the nasalized vowels occur long? You should state specifically which ones can or can't.<br />
Example 2 only demonstrates 4 vowel letters - can't you think of one that shows all 7?<br />
<br />
Best, --[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 12:59, 9 March 2010 (UTC)Mary Esther<br />
<br />
Hi Mary Esther,<br />
Thanks alot for the corrections. Yes, I am having problems with the nasalized vowels. I am still working on it. It has something to do with the computer and the NTNU-server or something like that. I am still working on it. I will make sure the right ones are there :-)<br />
<br />
Thanks again.<br />
Lilian<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian<br />
<br />
I have just gone over the phonology section, and it seems to me you got started on the wrong foot, probably because of what was there already. I suggest you go straight to the 9/10 vowel system and only mention at the end of it that in the orthography the -Advanced vowels are written e and o, so that those letters stand for 2 sounds each. You could then use the 2 example sentences to demonstrate this, showing the phonetic vowels in the second line. <br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 12:35, 8 March 2010 (UTC)Mary Esther Dakubu<br />
<br />
Another point worthwhile thinking about has to do with the two annotated examples inserted in the phonology section. In particular the first one does not seem representative really, since what we would like to exemplify are the phonological features that are characteristic for Akan.<br />
Perhaps we can find better examples.<br />
<br />
Another point is that one should really make sure that one has these examples annotated for the phonological features that one discusses in this section of the template. That might not yet be the case. Hm... <br />
It might be necessary to go back into the database and improve somewhat on the annotation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 12:16, 8 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian, <br />
<br />
I used the keyboard to put in a nasalized ''ẽ''. I hope that was the vowel you were looking for. --[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 12:08, 8 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi again,<br />
<br />
I changed a little the opening text slightly, since I was worried that one highlighted in the old text certain dialects and forgot others.<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 11:38, 5 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian,<br />
<br />
Here something seems to have gone wrong with the representation of the third vowel. :)<br />
<br />
Vowels [o, 3, ), o] are only nasalised in the Fanti dialects.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Justus Turamyomwe|Justus Turamyomwe]] 11:56, 2 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Akan templates - comments ==<br />
<br />
Hello Lilian<br />
<br />
Some comments on the templates you have just started:<br />
<br />
General Akan <br />
<br />
1. I'm surprised you use the expression "Fanti Twi" - Fantes wouldn't like it. Just Fante is more normal - other dialects are called Twi. Also I am surprised that you spell them Asanti and Fanti instead of Asante and Fante, and Akuapem.<br />
<br />
2. Vowel inventory: there is some confusion between phonology and orthography here. The 7 "main vowels" are the orthographic representation, but there are in fact 9 or 10 vowels, depending on the dialect, which divide into 2 sets, one +ATR and one -ATR. In the orthography the mid +ATR and the high +ATR are collapsed, so that the letters e and o represent 2 contrastive vowels each. This should be clarified, because what the template is most interested in is the phonological contrasts. But the note that the orthography doesn't reflect all the contrasts is of course in order.<br />
<br />
3. nasalization - hasn't appeared properly on the high vowels. Are you sure you are using a Unicode 8 font? I strongly suggest Doulos SIL, or Charis SIL. If you type the material in Word and paste it in it should work very well.<br />
<br />
<br />
Asante template<br />
<br />
1. You are using the wrong symbol for the high front -ATR vowel - see comments above.<br />
<br />
2. The sentence on Vowel Harmony is very awkward and needs revision. Tongue Root Position is not a "system" - You need something like "The sequence of vowels within the word is governed by vowel harmony based on tongue root position. The vowels divide into two sets based on this feature..."<br />
<br />
<br />
Keep up the good work.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 11:54, 3 March 2010 (UTC)</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Akan&diff=4602Typological Features Template for Akan2010-03-31T09:52:33Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>By [[User: Lilian Haugereid| Lilian Haugereid]]<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|In the following we describe the phonological inventory of Akan and the features that its dialects share. Some of these dialects are Asante, Fante and Akuapem as well as Bono. Dialects of Akan are mainly characterised by phonological differences, but other difference can also be described. <br />
|-<br />
|Vowel Inventory<br />
<br />
|The table below gives an overview of the Akan vowel inventiory.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="2%"|'''Orthography'''<br />
|width="2%"|'''Phonetic Symbols'''<br />
|width="2%"|'''+ATR'''<br />
|width="2%"|'''-ATR'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|i<br />
|i<br />
|i<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|e <br />
|ɪ/e<br />
|e<br />
|ɪ<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|ɛ<br />
|ɛ<br />
|<br />
|ɛ<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
<br />
|a<br />
|æ/a<br />
|æ<br />
|a<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
|ɔ<br />
|ɔ <br />
|<br />
|ɔ<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|o<br />
|o/ʊ<br />
|o<br />
|ʊ<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|u<br />
|u<br />
|u<br />
| <br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In the following vowels are described under five headings: oral, nasalised, and long vowels, diphthongs, and vowel harmony (or vowel combinations across syllables).<br />
<br />
'''Oral Vowels'''<br />
<br />
Akan has 9 or 10 oral vowels, depending on the dialect: [e,ɔ,a,o,ɛ i,u,ɪ,æ,ʊ ]. Vowel [æ] is only used in Asante and Akuapem. So you can see from the example below that, where Akuapem and Asante use [æ] Fante uses [e]<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="2%"|'''Asante/Akuapem'''<br />
|width="2%"|'''Ph.Trans Asante/Akuapem'''<br />
|width="2%"|''' Fante'''<br />
|width="2%"|'''PH.Trans Fante'''<br />
|width="2%"|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|ani<br />
|/æni/ <br />
|enyiwa <br />
|/enyiwa/ <br />
|'eyes'<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
In the orthography, the letters e and o represent contrastive vowels: e represents [e] and [ɪ], and o represents [o] and [ʊ] as illustrated in the table below.<br />
<br />
{|border="1"<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|width="2%"|'''Akan'''<br />
|width="2%"|'''Ph.Trans'''<br />
|width="2%"|'''English'''<br />
|width="2%"|'''Akan'''<br />
|width="2%"|'''Ph.Trans''' <br />
|width="2%"|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|te(w) <br />
|/tɪ(w)/ <br />
|'to tear' <br />
|kɛsi <br />
|/kɛsɪ/ <br />
|'big'<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|fie<br />
|/fie/<br />
|'home'<br />
|esiw/esie<br />
|/(esiw)(esie)/ <br />
|'ant hill'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|to(w) <br />
|/tʊw/ <br />
|'to throw' <br />
|horo <br />
|/hʊhʊ/ <br />
|'to wash'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|obi <br />
|/obi/ <br />
|'someone' <br />
|ako <br />
|/ako/ <br />
|'parrot'<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|-<br />
|} <br />
NB"Ph.Trans" refers to phonetic transcription.<br />
<Phrase>11543</Phrase><br />
<br />
In the example above we observe the occurrence of all 7 vowel letters used in Akan. Vowels carry tone(s). This is discussed later under "Tone".<br />
<br />
'''B. Nasalised Vowels'''<br />
<br />
Nasalisation in Akan can be contrastive (see table below), and as the result of assimilation nasality can spread to following vowels (nkwa: /ŋ̃kʷã/ - 'life'). There are five nasalised vowels in Akan: ἶ, ĩ, ã, ῦ, and ũ <br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1"<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|width="2%"|'''Fante'''<br />
|width="2%"|'''Asante'''<br />
|width="2%"|'''Akuapem'''<br />
|width="2%"|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
|hũ - hu <br />
|hũ - hu <br />
|hũw - huw <br />
|see - blow (air) <br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|-<br />
|} <br />
(Dolphyne 1988:4) <br />
<br />
NB: Vowels [e, ɛ, ɔ, o] are not normally nasalised in Akan, however [ɛ], and [ɔ] can be nasalised in the Fante dialects when they occur adjacent to nasal consonants [m] and [n] in a word or a phrase.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''C. Long Vowels'''<br />
<br />
The length of the vowel may determine meaning. <br />
Orthographically,long vowels are represented through doubling.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="2%"|'''Akan'''<br />
|width="2%"|'''English'''<br />
|width="2%"|'''Akan'''<br />
|width="2%"|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
|da<br />
|sleep<br />
|daa<br />
|everyday<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
|sa<br />
|dance<br />
|saa<br />
|exactly<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|* kɔ<br />
|go<br />
|kɔɔ<br />
|red<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|-<br />
|} <br />
Verbs in Akan are inflected for tense/aspect by lengthening the final vowel. Oral vowels and nasalised vowels except the unadvanced high front vowel [ɪ] can be lengthened (see table below). The asterisks indicates the vowels that can be nasalised. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="2%"|'''Vowels'''<br />
|'''Oral vowel'''<br />
|'''English'''<br />
|'''Long vowel'''<br />
|'''English'''<br />
|'''Nasal'''<br />
|'''English'''<br />
|'''Long Nasal'''<br />
|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
<br />
|* i<br />
|ti<br />
|head/chase<br />
|tii<br />
|chased<br />
|tἷ<br />
|scratch<br />
|tἷἷ<br />
|scratched<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
<br />
|* ɪ<br />
|fɪ<br />
|go out<br />
|fɪɪ<br />
|cameout<br />
|fĩ<br />
|ribs<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|e<br />
|hwe<br />
|to suck<br />
|hwee<br />
|zero <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|ɛ<br />
|sɛ<br />
|resempble<br />
|sɛɛ<br />
|resembled <br />
| <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|* u<br />
|pu<br />
|spit<br />
|puu<br />
|spat<br />
|pũ<br />
|reject/smoke <br />
|pũũ<br />
|rejected/smoked<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|* ʊ<br />
|tʊ<br />
|throw<br />
|tʊʊ<br />
|threw<br />
|tῦ<br />
|bake/roast<br />
|tῦῦ<br />
|roasted/baked<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|* a<br />
|ka<br />
|bite<br />
|kaa<br />
|bit<br />
|kã<br />
|drive/say<br />
|kãã<br />
|drove/said<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|æ<br />
|æni<br />
|eyes<br />
|dææbi<br />
|no<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|o<br />
|som<br />
|worship<br />
|apoo<br />
|cheating<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|ɔ<br />
|kɔ<br />
|go<br />
|kɔɔ<br />
|went<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
'''D. Diphthongs'''<br />
<br />
An example of a diphthong is given below:<br />
<Phrase>8704</Phrase><br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| <br />
Akan has two sets of vowels which are either "advanced tongue root" or "retracted tongue root", that is +ATR and -ATR respectively: . The + Advanced Tongue root vowels are produced by pushing the root of the tongue forward. For the production of the un-advanced tongue root vowels the root of the tongue is retracted or pushed backward.<br />
<br />
Set A(+ATR) [i, e, æ, o, u]<br />
<br />
Set B(-ATR) [ɪ, ɛ, a, ɔ, ʊ]<br />
<br />
Under vowel harmony co-occurring vowels are either set A or B vowels.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="2%"|''' +ATR'''<br />
|width="2%"|'''English'''<br />
|width="2%"|'''-ATR'''<br />
|width="2%"|'''English'''<br />
<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
<br />
|/koko/<br />
|'chest'<br />
|/kɔkɔ(w)/<br />
|'red'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|/Kun(u)/<br />
|'husband' <br />
|/kʊn/ <br />
|'neck'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|/efie/ <br />
|'home'<br />
|/afɪ/<br />
|'year'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|/adi/<br />
|'has eaten' <br />
|/ædɪ/<br />
|'thing'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Harmony Exceptions:<br />
There are few words in Akan that deviates from the harmony rule. The unadvanced vowel /a/ is known to usually occur in such words. However /ɛ/ too does deviate sometime. The following are examples of such deviations.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Akan'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|sika<br />
|'money'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|kura<br />
|'to hold'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|dua<br />
|'to plant'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|nyinsɛn<br />
|'to be pregnant'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|pinkyɛn <br />
|'come close'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|ohia <br />
|'s/he needs'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
We can see from the above examples that vowels /a/ occurred with the advanced vowels /i, u, o/ and /ɛ/ which is also -ATR, occurred with +ATR vowel /i/.<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| <br />
Akan has 16 consonants: [j, w, p, b, f, d, t, s, m, n, k, kʷ, h, hʷ, g, gʷ]. The table below gives the articulation of these consonants:<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|<br />
|width="20%"|'''Bilabial'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Labiodentals'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Alveolar'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Pre-palatal''' <br />
|width="20%"|'''Palatal'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Velar'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Glottal'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|Stop<br />
|p,b <br />
| <br />
|t,d <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|k/kʷ,g/gʷ <br />
|ʔ<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
<br />
|Fricative<br />
| <br />
|f <br />
|s <br />
|ç(hy) <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|h<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|Labialized<br />
Fricatives<br />
(-Voice) <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|çʷ(hw)<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
|Affricate <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|ʥ(gy)/ʨ(ky)<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
|Labialized affricate <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|ʨʷ,ʥʷ<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
<br />
|Lateral(voiced) <br />
| <br />
|<br />
|l<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
<br />
|Nasal(voiced)<br />
|m<br />
|<br />
|n<br />
|<br />
|ɲ(ny) <br />
|ŋ(n) <br />
|<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
<br />
|Labialized <br />
Nasal (voiced) <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|ɲʷ(nw) <br />
|ŋʷ(nw) <br />
|<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
<br />
|Glide (voiced) <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|r <br />
| <br />
|y <br />
|w <br />
|<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples: 9<br />
Bilabial consonants <br />
Example n:<br />
'''Akan English Akan English Akan English'''<br />
/papa/ 'father' /ɔbaa/ 'girl' /maame/ 'mother'<br />
<br />
[f] is the only Labio-dental consonant in Akan.<br />
Example: 10<br />
'''Akan English''' <br />
/fɛrɪ/ 'shy'<br />
<br />
Alveolar consonants:<br />
Example: 11<br />
'''Akan English Akan English Akan English'''<br />
/atadeɛ/ 'clothe' /sɪrɪ/ 'laughs' /ɛnora/ 'yesterday'<br />
<br />
[hy, hw, ky, gy]<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Tone<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language] is a tone language and which tones are used; does [your language] have lexical tone?<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic syllable structures of [your language].<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[Typological Features Template for Akan - morpho-syntax]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Akan]]</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Typological_Features_Template_for_Akan&diff=4584Talk:Typological Features Template for Akan2010-03-30T16:58:33Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>Hi again Lilian,<br />
I notice that before the words exemplifying consonants you have "Example n:" - what is the n for? <br />
I think the idea is to make the templates as simple and easy to use as possible, but accurate of course.<br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 16:58, 30 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Consonants: you have used the wrong symbols for 'hy' and 'hw' - use ɕ (character code 0255) and ɕʷ. The symbols for 'gy' and 'ky' are correct.<br />
<br />
Is it possible to make the table columns narrower? They seem too wide for the screen.<br />
<br />
You don't really need to write so many words - clear headings are enough I think.<br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 14:22, 23 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi again, here the missing vowels, Lilian - with courtesy from Mary Esther:<br />
<br />
'''Unadvanced vowels in Doulos SIL'''<br />
<br />
* Unadvanced High back ʊ (028A) or ʋ (028B) – doesn’t matter which but be consistent<br />
* Unadvanced Mid front ɛ (025B)<br />
* Unadvanced Mid back ɔ (0254)<br />
* Unadvanced High front ɩ (0269) or ɪ (026A) <br />
* Unadvanced Low (mid) a<br />
<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee Beermann]] 08:45, 12 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hi again <br />
There is still a font problem - the nasalized vowels (section B) don't look right. Also at the end of this section on nasalized vowels, where you say that certain vowels are only nasalised in Fante, there is something wrong - 'o' appears twice!<br />
<br />
Under Long vowels - can all 9 or 10 vowels occur as long vowels? Can all the nasalized vowels occur long? You should state specifically which ones can or can't.<br />
Example 2 only demonstrates 4 vowel letters - can't you think of one that shows all 7?<br />
<br />
Best, --[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 12:59, 9 March 2010 (UTC)Mary Esther<br />
<br />
Hi Mary Esther,<br />
Thanks alot for the corrections. Yes, I am having problems with the nasalized vowels. I am still working on it. It has something to do with the computer and the NTNU-server or something like that. I am still working on it. I will make sure the right ones are there :-)<br />
<br />
Thanks again.<br />
Lilian<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian<br />
<br />
I have just gone over the phonology section, and it seems to me you got started on the wrong foot, probably because of what was there already. I suggest you go straight to the 9/10 vowel system and only mention at the end of it that in the orthography the -Advanced vowels are written e and o, so that those letters stand for 2 sounds each. You could then use the 2 example sentences to demonstrate this, showing the phonetic vowels in the second line. <br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 12:35, 8 March 2010 (UTC)Mary Esther Dakubu<br />
<br />
Another point worthwhile thinking about has to do with the two annotated examples inserted in the phonology section. In particular the first one does not seem representative really, since what we would like to exemplify are the phonological features that are characteristic for Akan.<br />
Perhaps we can find better examples.<br />
<br />
Another point is that one should really make sure that one has these examples annotated for the phonological features that one discusses in this section of the template. That might not yet be the case. Hm... <br />
It might be necessary to go back into the database and improve somewhat on the annotation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 12:16, 8 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian, <br />
<br />
I used the keyboard to put in a nasalized ''ẽ''. I hope that was the vowel you were looking for. --[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 12:08, 8 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi again,<br />
<br />
I changed a little the opening text slightly, since I was worried that one highlighted in the old text certain dialects and forgot others.<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 11:38, 5 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian,<br />
<br />
Here something seems to have gone wrong with the representation of the third vowel. :)<br />
<br />
Vowels [o, 3, ), o] are only nasalised in the Fanti dialects.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Justus Turamyomwe|Justus Turamyomwe]] 11:56, 2 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Akan templates - comments ==<br />
<br />
Hello Lilian<br />
<br />
Some comments on the templates you have just started:<br />
<br />
General Akan <br />
<br />
1. I'm surprised you use the expression "Fanti Twi" - Fantes wouldn't like it. Just Fante is more normal - other dialects are called Twi. Also I am surprised that you spell them Asanti and Fanti instead of Asante and Fante, and Akuapem.<br />
<br />
2. Vowel inventory: there is some confusion between phonology and orthography here. The 7 "main vowels" are the orthographic representation, but there are in fact 9 or 10 vowels, depending on the dialect, which divide into 2 sets, one +ATR and one -ATR. In the orthography the mid +ATR and the high +ATR are collapsed, so that the letters e and o represent 2 contrastive vowels each. This should be clarified, because what the template is most interested in is the phonological contrasts. But the note that the orthography doesn't reflect all the contrasts is of course in order.<br />
<br />
3. nasalization - hasn't appeared properly on the high vowels. Are you sure you are using a Unicode 8 font? I strongly suggest Doulos SIL, or Charis SIL. If you type the material in Word and paste it in it should work very well.<br />
<br />
<br />
Asante template<br />
<br />
1. You are using the wrong symbol for the high front -ATR vowel - see comments above.<br />
<br />
2. The sentence on Vowel Harmony is very awkward and needs revision. Tongue Root Position is not a "system" - You need something like "The sequence of vowels within the word is governed by vowel harmony based on tongue root position. The vowels divide into two sets based on this feature..."<br />
<br />
<br />
Keep up the good work.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 11:54, 3 March 2010 (UTC)</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Akan&diff=4577Typological Features Template for Akan2010-03-30T11:38:24Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>By [[User: Lilian Haugereid| Lilian Haugereid]]<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|In the following I will describe the phonological inventory of Akan and the features that its dialects share. Some of these dialects are Asante, Fante and Akuapem as well as Bono. Dialects of Akan are mainly characterized by phonological differences, but other difference can also be described. The account we are providing here is directed towards a description of the grammatical features that all dialects of Akan share.<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel Inventory<br />
<br />
|Vowels in Akan are described here under five headings: oral, nasalised, and long vowels, diphthongs, and vowel harmony (or vowel combinations across syllables).<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Oral Vowels'''<br />
<br />
Akan has 9 or 10 oral vowels, depending on the dialect: [e,ɔ,a,o,ɛ i,u,ɪ,æ,ʊ ]. Vowel [æ] is only used in the Asante and the Akuapem dialects. So you can see from the example below that, where Akuapem and Asante use [æ] Fante uses [e]<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Asante/Akuapem'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Ph.Trans Asante/Akuapem'''<br />
|width="20%"|''' Fante'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''PH.Trans Fante'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|ani<br />
|/æni/ <br />
|enyiwa <br />
|/enyiwa/ <br />
|'eyes'<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
In the orthography, the letters e and o represent two contrastive vowels each: e represents both [e] and [ɪ], and o represents both [o] and [ʊ].<br />
<br />
For example 1:<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="5"<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|width="20%"|'''Akan'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Ph.Trans'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''English'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Akan'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Ph.Trans''' <br />
|width="20%"|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|te(w) <br />
|/tɪ(w)/ <br />
|'to tear' <br />
|kɛsi <br />
|/kɛsɪ/ <br />
|'big'<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|fie<br />
|/fie/<br />
|'home'<br />
|esiw/esie<br />
|/(esiw)(esie)/ <br />
|'ant hill'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|to(w) <br />
|/tʊw/ <br />
|'to throw' <br />
|horo <br />
|/hʊhʊ/ <br />
|'to wash'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|obi <br />
|/obi/ <br />
|'someone' <br />
|ako <br />
|/ako/ <br />
|'parrot'<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|-<br />
|} <br />
NB"Ph.Trans" refers to phonetic transcription.<br />
<br />
As can be seen from example 1 above, the vowel e in orthography represents vowels /ɪ/ and /e/, and the vowel o represents /o/, and/ʊ/. <br />
<br />
Example 2a<Phrase>11538</Phrase><br />
<br />
Example 2b<Phrase>11541</Phrase><br />
<br />
The two sentences above examplify the two contrastive vowels [e]=/e,ɪ/ and [o]= /o,ʊ/. They can be transcribed respectively as follows:<br />
<br />
2a. /bʊsʊmɪ asʊ/<br />
<br />
2b. /me tu kwan bronya yi/<br />
<br />
So in any written Akan text, you will find some of these 7 vowel letters: i e ɛ a ɔ o u, used in the Akan sentence below.<br />
<br />
Example 3:<Phrase>11543</Phrase><br />
<br />
In example 3, we have the occurrence of all 7 vowel letters in Akan. It can also be mentioned here that the vowels carry tone(s). This will be discussed later under "Tone", However, the two different sets of Akan vowels based on ATR is discussed under "Vowel Harmony" below.<br />
<br />
'''B. Nasalised Vowels'''<br />
<br />
Nasalisation is an important phonological feature in Akan. It can for example bring changes in meaning. There are five nasalised vowels and they are marked in transcription by placing (~), which is normally called the tilde, above the vowel.<br />
<br />
These are the five nasalised vowels: ἶ, ĩ, ã, ῦ, and ũ <br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|width="20%"|'''Fante'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Asante'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Akuapem'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
|hũ - hu <br />
|hũ - hu <br />
|hũw - huw <br />
|see - blow (air) <br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|-<br />
|} <br />
(Dolphyne 1988:4) <br />
<br />
As a result of assimilation, a neighbouring nasal sound, can give its nasalitiy quality to a vowel; as in this word:<br />
<br />
nkwa: /ŋ̃kʷã/ - 'life'<br />
<br />
NB: Vowels [e, ɛ, ɔ, o] are not normally nasalised in Akan, however [ɛ], and [ɔ] can be nasalised in the Fante dialects when they occur as neighbours with nasal consonants, [m] and [n] in a word or a phrase.<br />
<br />
For Example 4:<br />
<br />
<br />
'''C. Long Vowels'''<br />
<br />
<br />
Vowels in Akan can either be long or short. The length of the vowel can determine the meaning difference of some words in the language. In orthography, long vowels are represented by doubling them.<br />
<br />
Examples 5:<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Akan'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''English'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Akan'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
|da<br />
|sleep<br />
|daa<br />
|everyday<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
|sa<br />
|dance<br />
|saa<br />
|exactly<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|* kɔ<br />
|go<br />
|kɔɔ<br />
|red<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|-<br />
|} <br />
Verbs in Akan are inflected for completive aspect or past tense by lengthening the final vowel of the verb if it ends in a vowel. So in most of the verbs in completive aspect have long vowels at the end. This is exemplified in the last example with the asterisk under example 5. <br />
<br />
It can also be mentioned here that all the oral vowels can be lenghtened. And all nasalised vowels except the unadvanced high front vowel [ɪ], can be lengthened. This is indicated by the examples below. The asterisks are on vowels that can be nasalised. <br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Vowels'''<br />
|'''Oral vowel'''<br />
|'''English'''<br />
|'''Long vowel'''<br />
|'''English'''<br />
|'''Nasal'''<br />
|'''English'''<br />
|'''Long Nasal'''<br />
|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
<br />
|* i<br />
|ti<br />
|head/chase<br />
|tii<br />
|chased<br />
|tἷ<br />
|scratch<br />
|tἷἷ<br />
|scratched<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
<br />
|* ɪ<br />
|fɪ<br />
|go out<br />
|fɪɪ<br />
|cameout<br />
|fĩ<br />
|ribs<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|e<br />
|hwe<br />
|to suck<br />
|hwee<br />
|zero <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|ɛ<br />
|sɛ<br />
|resempble<br />
|sɛɛ<br />
|resembled <br />
| <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|* u<br />
|pu<br />
|spit<br />
|puu<br />
|spat<br />
|pũ<br />
|reject/smoke <br />
|pũũ<br />
|rejected/smoked<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|* ʊ<br />
|tʊ<br />
|throw<br />
|tʊʊ<br />
|threw<br />
|tῦ<br />
|bake/roast<br />
|tῦῦ<br />
|roasted/baked<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|* a<br />
|ka<br />
|bite<br />
|kaa<br />
|bit<br />
|kã<br />
|drive/say<br />
|kãã<br />
|drove/said<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|æ<br />
|æni<br />
|eyes<br />
|dææbi<br />
|no<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|o<br />
|som<br />
|worship<br />
|apoo<br />
|cheating<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|ɔ<br />
|kɔ<br />
|go<br />
|kɔɔ<br />
|went<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
'''D. Diphthongs'''<br />
<br />
As indicated above, the occurrence of identical vowels in an Akan word is considered as long vowels. There are also occurrence of sequences of nonidentical vowels. These are produced when the tongue glides from one articulation to another.<br />
<br />
Example 7:<br />
<Phrase>8704</Phrase><br />
<br />
As can be seen in example 7, the verb 'dae' has the vowels [a] and and [ɪ] articulated by the tongue gliding from the central part of the mouth to the middle front part. <br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| <br />
The harmony of vowels is defined as the restriction on the occurence of certain vowels in the same word. In the production of Akan vowels, the position of the tongue determines whether a vowel has the feature "advanced tongue root" or "retracted tongue root", +ATR and -ATR respectively. The + Advanced Tongue root vowels are produced by pushing the root of the tongue forward. For the production of the unadvanced tongue root vowels. The root of the tongue is retracted or pushed backward.<br />
<br />
Set A(+ATR) [i, e, æ, o, u]<br />
<br />
Set B(-ATR) [ɪ, ɛ, a, ɔ, ʊ]<br />
<br />
This feature places restrictions on the occurrence of vowels from set A and set B. Most Akan words have vowels from either set A or B.<br />
<br />
Example 8:<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|''' +ATR'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''English'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''-ATR'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
<br />
|/koko/<br />
|'chest'<br />
|/kɔkɔ(w)/<br />
|'red'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|/Kun(u)/<br />
|'husband' <br />
|/kʊn/ <br />
|'neck'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|/efie/ <br />
|'home'<br />
|/afɪ/<br />
|'year'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|/adi/<br />
|'has eaten' <br />
|/ædɪ/<br />
|'thing'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
So the vowels can be paired as below; those on the left +ATR and on the right -ATR. The front vowels are produced with the front, the central, the center of the tongue and the back, the back part of the tongue.<br />
<br />
'''Front Central Back'''<br />
i/ɪ æ/a o/ɔ<br />
e/ɛ ʊ/u<br />
<br />
Harmony Exceptions:<br />
There are few words in Akan that deviates from the harmony rule. The unadvanced vowel /a/ is known to usually occur in such words. However /ɛ/ too does deviate sometime. The following are examples of such deviations.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Akan'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|sika<br />
|'money'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|kura<br />
|'to hold'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|dua<br />
|'to plant'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|nyinsɛn<br />
|'to be pregnant'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|pinkyɛn <br />
|'come close'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|ohia <br />
|'s/he needs'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
We can see from the above examples that vowels /a/ occurred with the advanced vowels /i, u, o/ and /ɛ/ which is also -ATR, occurred with +ATR vowel /i/.<br />
<br />
<br />
The table below shows an overview of the vowels in the language.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Orthography'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Phonetic Symbols'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''+ATR'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''-ATR'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|i<br />
|i<br />
|i<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|e <br />
|ɪ/e<br />
|e<br />
|ɪ<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|ɛ<br />
|ɛ<br />
|<br />
|ɛ<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
<br />
|a<br />
|æ/a<br />
|æ<br />
|a<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
|ɔ<br />
|ɔ <br />
|<br />
|ɔ<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|o<br />
|o/ʊ<br />
|o<br />
|ʊ<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|u<br />
|u<br />
|u<br />
| <br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In summary, these are the vowels and their names in Akan:<br />
<br />
i Advanced High Front <br />
ɪ Unadvanced High Front<br />
e Advanced Mid Front <br />
ɛ Unadvanced Mid Front <br />
æ Advanced Low Central <br />
a Undvanced Low Central<br />
o Adavnced Mid Back <br />
ɔ Unadvanced Mid Back <br />
u Advanced High Back <br />
ʊ Unadvanced High Back<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| <br />
Akan has 16 consonants: [j, w, p, b, f, d, t, s, m, n, k, kʷ, h, hʷ, g, gʷ]. The table below gives the articulation of these consonants:<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|<br />
|width="20%"|'''Bilabial'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Labiodentals'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Alveolar'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Pre-palatal''' <br />
|width="20%"|'''Palatal'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Velar'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Glottal'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|Stop<br />
|p,b <br />
| <br />
|t,d <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|k/kʷ,g/gʷ <br />
|ʔ<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
<br />
|Fricative<br />
| <br />
|f <br />
|s <br />
|ç(hy) <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|h<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|Labialized<br />
Fricatives<br />
(-Voice) <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|çʷ(hw)<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
|Affricate <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|ʥ(gy)/ʨ(ky)<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
|Labialized affricate <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|ʨʷ,ʥʷ<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
<br />
|Lateral(voiced) <br />
| <br />
|<br />
|l<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
<br />
|Nasal(voiced)<br />
|m<br />
|<br />
|n<br />
|<br />
|ɲ(ny) <br />
|ŋ(n) <br />
|<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
<br />
|Labialized <br />
Nasal (voiced) <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|ɲʷ(nw) <br />
|ŋʷ(nw) <br />
|<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
<br />
|Glide (voiced) <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|r <br />
| <br />
|y <br />
|w <br />
|<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
Bilabial consonants <br />
Example n:<br />
'''Akan English Akan English Akan English'''<br />
/papa/ 'father' /ɔbaa/ 'girl' /maame/ 'mother'<br />
<br />
[f] is the only Labio-dental consonant in Akan.<br />
Example n:<br />
'''Akan English''' <br />
/fɛrɪ/ 'shy'<br />
<br />
Alveolar consonants:<br />
Example n:<br />
'''Akan English Akan English Akan English'''<br />
/atadeɛ/ 'clothe' /sɪrɪ/ 'laughs' /ɛnora/ 'yesterday'<br />
<br />
[hy, hw, ky, gy]<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Tone<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language] is a tone language and which tones are used; does [your language] have lexical tone?<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic syllable structures of [your language].<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[Typological Features Template for Akan - morpho-syntax]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Akan]]</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Akan&diff=4576Typological Features Template for Akan2010-03-30T11:32:44Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>By [[User: Lilian Haugereid| Lilian Haugereid]]<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|In the following I will describe the phonological inventory of Akan and the features that its dialects share. Some of these dialects are Asante, Fante and Akuapem as well as Bono. Dialects of Akan are mainly characterized by phonological differences, but other difference can also be described. The account we are providing here is directed towards a description of the grammatical features that all dialects of Akan share.<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel Inventory<br />
<br />
|Vowels in Akan are described here under five headings: oral, nasalised, and long vowels, diphthongs, and vowel harmony (or vowel combinations across syllables).<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Oral Vowels'''<br />
<br />
Akan has 9 or 10 oral vowels, depending on the dialect: [e,ɔ,a,o,ɛ i,u,ɪ,æ,ʊ ]. Vowel [æ] is only used in the Asante and the Akuapem dialects. So you can see from the example below that, where Akuapem and Asante use [æ] Fante uses [e]<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Asante/Akuapem'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Ph.Trans Asante/Akuapem'''<br />
|width="20%"|''' Fante'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''PH.Trans Fante'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|ani<br />
|/æni/ <br />
|enyiwa <br />
|/enyiwa/ <br />
|'eyes'<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
In the orthography, the letters e and o represent two contrastive vowels each: e represents both [e] and [ɪ], and o represents both [o] and [ʊ].<br />
<br />
For example 1:<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="5"<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|width="20%"|'''Akan'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Ph.Trans'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''English'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Akan'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Ph.Trans''' <br />
|width="20%"|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|te(w) <br />
|/tɪ(w)/ <br />
|'to tear' <br />
|kɛsi <br />
|/kɛsɪ/ <br />
|'big'<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|fie<br />
|/fie/<br />
|'home'<br />
|esiw/esie<br />
|/(esiw)(esie)/ <br />
|'ant hill'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|to(w) <br />
|/tʊw/ <br />
|'to throw' <br />
|horo <br />
|/hʊhʊ/ <br />
|'to wash'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|obi <br />
|/obi/ <br />
|'someone' <br />
|ako <br />
|/ako/ <br />
|'parrot'<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|-<br />
|} <br />
NB"Ph.Trans" refers to phonetic transcription.<br />
<br />
As can be seen from example 1 above, the vowel e in orthography represents vowels /ɪ/ and /e/, and the vowel o represents /o/, and/ʊ/. <br />
<br />
Example 2a<Phrase>11538</Phrase><br />
<br />
Example 2b<Phrase>11541</Phrase><br />
<br />
The two sentences above examplify the two contrastive vowels [e]=/e,ɪ/ and [o]= /o,ʊ/. They can be transcribed respectively as follows:<br />
<br />
2a. /bʊsʊmɪ asʊ/<br />
<br />
2b. /me tu kwan bronya yi/<br />
<br />
So in any written Akan text, you will find some of these 7 vowel letters: i e ɛ a ɔ o u, used in the Akan sentence below.<br />
<br />
Example 3:<Phrase>11543</Phrase><br />
<br />
In example 3, we have the occurrence of all 7 vowel letters in Akan. It can also be mentioned here that the vowels carry tone(s). This will be discussed later under "Tone", However, the two different sets of Akan vowels based on ATR is discussed under "Vowel Harmony" below.<br />
<br />
'''B. Nasalised Vowels'''<br />
<br />
Nasalisation is an important phonological feature in Akan. It can for example bring changes in meaning. There are five nasalised vowels and they are marked in transcription by placing (~), which is normally called the tilde, above the vowel.<br />
<br />
These are the five nasalised vowels: ἶ, ĩ, ã, ῦ, and ũ <br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|width="20%"|'''Fante'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Asante'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Akuapem'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
|hũ - hu <br />
|hũ - hu <br />
|hũw - huw <br />
|see - blow (air) <br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|-<br />
|} <br />
(Dolphyne 1988:4) <br />
<br />
As a result of assimilation, a neighbouring nasal sound, can give its nasalitiy quality to a vowel; as in this word:<br />
<br />
nkwa: /ŋ̃kʷã/ - 'life'<br />
<br />
NB: Vowels [e, ɛ, ɔ, o] are not normally nasalised in Akan, however [ɛ], and [ɔ] can be nasalised in the Fante dialects when they occur as neighbours with nasal consonants, [m] and [n] in a word or a phrase.<br />
<br />
For Example 4:<br />
<br />
<br />
'''C. Long Vowels'''<br />
<br />
<br />
Vowels in Akan can either be long or short. The length of the vowel can determine the meaning difference of some words in the language. In orthography, long vowels are represented by doubling them.<br />
<br />
Examples 5:<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Akan'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''English'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Akan'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
|da<br />
|sleep<br />
|daa<br />
|everyday<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
|sa<br />
|dance<br />
|saa<br />
|exactly<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|* kɔ<br />
|go<br />
|kɔɔ<br />
|red<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|-<br />
|} <br />
Verbs in Akan are inflected for completive aspect or past tense by lengthening the final vowel of the verb if it ends in a vowel. So in most of the verbs in completive aspect have long vowels at the end. This is exemplified in the last example with the asterisk under example 5. <br />
<br />
It can also be mentioned here that all the oral vowels can be lenghtened. And all nasalised vowels except the unadvanced high front vowel [ɪ], can be lengthened. This is indicated by the examples below. The asterisks are on vowels that can be nasalised. <br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Vowels'''<br />
|'''Oral vowel'''<br />
|'''English'''<br />
|'''Long vowel'''<br />
|'''English'''<br />
|'''Nasal'''<br />
|'''English'''<br />
|'''Long Nasal'''<br />
|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
<br />
|* i<br />
|ti<br />
|head/chase<br />
|tii<br />
|chased<br />
|tἷ<br />
|scratch<br />
|tἷἷ<br />
|scratched<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
<br />
|* ɪ<br />
|fɪ<br />
|go out<br />
|fɪɪ<br />
|cameout<br />
|fĩ<br />
|ribs<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|e<br />
|hwe<br />
|to suck<br />
|hwee<br />
|zero <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|ɛ<br />
|sɛ<br />
|resempble<br />
|sɛɛ<br />
|resembled <br />
| <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|* u<br />
|pu<br />
|spit<br />
|puu<br />
|spat<br />
|pũ<br />
|reject/smoke <br />
|pũũ<br />
|rejected/smoked<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|* ʊ<br />
|tʊ<br />
|throw<br />
|tʊʊ<br />
|threw<br />
|tῦ<br />
|bake/roast<br />
|tῦῦ<br />
|roasted/baked<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|* a<br />
|ka<br />
|bite<br />
|kaa<br />
|bit<br />
|kã<br />
|drive/say<br />
|kãã<br />
|drove/said<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|æ<br />
|æni<br />
|eyes<br />
|dææbi<br />
|no<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|o<br />
|som<br />
|worship<br />
|apoo<br />
|cheating<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|ɔ<br />
|kɔ<br />
|go<br />
|kɔɔ<br />
|went<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
'''D. Diphthongs'''<br />
<br />
As indicated above, the occurrence of identical vowels in an Akan word is considered as long vowels. There are also occurrence of sequences of nonidentical vowels. These are produced when the tongue glides from one articulation to another.<br />
<br />
Example 7:<br />
<Phrase>8704</Phrase><br />
<br />
As can be seen in example 7, the verb 'dae' has the vowels [a] and and [ɪ] articulated by the tongue gliding from the central part of the mouth to the middle front part. <br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| <br />
The harmony of vowels is defined as the restriction on the occurence of certain vowels in the same word. In the production of Akan vowels, the position of the tongue determines whether a vowel has the feature "advanced tongue root" or "retracted tongue root", +ATR and -ATR respectively. The + Advanced Tongue root vowels are produced by pushing the root of the tongue forward. For the production of the unadvanced tongue root vowels. The root of the tongue is retracted or pushed backward.<br />
<br />
Set A(+ATR) [i, e, æ, o, u]<br />
<br />
Set B(-ATR) [ɪ, ɛ, a, ɔ, ʊ]<br />
<br />
This feature places restrictions on the occurrence of vowels from set A and set B. Most Akan words have vowels from either set A or B.<br />
<br />
Example 8:<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|''' +ATR'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''English'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''-ATR'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
<br />
|/koko/<br />
|'chest'<br />
|/kɔkɔ(w)/<br />
|'red'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|/Kun(u)/<br />
|'husband' <br />
|/kʊn/ <br />
|'neck'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|/efie/ <br />
|'home'<br />
|/afɪ/<br />
|'year'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|/adi/<br />
|'has eaten' <br />
|/ædɪ/<br />
|'thing'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
So the vowels can be paired as below; those on the left +ATR and on the right -ATR. The front vowels are produced with the front, the central, the center of the tongue and the back, the back part of the tongue.<br />
<br />
'''Front Central Back'''<br />
i/ɪ æ/a o/ɔ<br />
e/ɛ ʊ/u<br />
<br />
Harmony Exceptions:<br />
There are few words in Akan that deviates from the harmony rule. The unadvanced vowel /a/ is known to usually occur in such words. However /ɛ/ too does deviate sometime. The following are examples of such deviations.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Akan'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''English'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|sika<br />
|'money'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|kura<br />
|'to hold'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|dua<br />
|'to plant'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|nyinsɛn<br />
|'to be pregnant'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|pinkyɛn <br />
|'come close'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|ohia <br />
|'s/he needs'<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
We can see from the above examples that vowels /a/ occurred with the advanced vowels /i, u, o/ and /ɛ/ which is also -ATR, occurred with +ATR vowel /i/.<br />
<br />
<br />
The table below shows an overview of the vowels in the language.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Orthography'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Phonetic Symbols'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''+ATR'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''-ATR'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|i<br />
|i<br />
|i<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|e <br />
|ɪ/e<br />
|e<br />
|ɪ<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|ɛ<br />
|ɛ<br />
|<br />
|ɛ<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
<br />
|a<br />
|æ/a<br />
|æ<br />
|a<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
|ɔ<br />
|ɔ <br />
|<br />
|ɔ<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|o<br />
|o/ʊ<br />
|o<br />
|ʊ<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|u<br />
|u<br />
|u<br />
| <br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In summary, these are the vowels and their names in Akan:<br />
<br />
i Advanced High Front <br />
ɪ Unadvanced High Front<br />
e Advanced Mid Front <br />
ɛ Unadvanced Mid Front <br />
æ Advanced Low Central <br />
a Undvanced Low Central<br />
o Adavnced Mid Back <br />
ɔ Unadvanced Mid Back <br />
u Advanced High Back <br />
ʊ Unadvanced High Back<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| <br />
Akan has 16 consonants: [j, w, p, b, f, d, t, s, m, n, k, kʷ, h, hʷ, g, gʷ]. The table below gives the articulation of these consonants:<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|<br />
|width="20%"|'''Bilabial'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Labiodentals'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Alveolar'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Pre-palatal''' <br />
|width="20%"|'''Palatal'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Velar'''<br />
|width="20%"|'''Glottal'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|Stop<br />
|p,b <br />
| <br />
|t,d <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|k/kʷ,g/gʷ <br />
|ʔ<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
<br />
|Fricative<br />
| <br />
|f <br />
|s <br />
|ç(hy) <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|h<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
<br />
|Labialized<br />
Fricatives<br />
(-Voice) <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|çʷ(hw)<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
|Affricate <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|ʥ(gy)/ʨ(ky)<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
|Labialized affricate <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|ʨʷ,ʥʷ<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
<br />
|Lateral(voiced) <br />
| <br />
|<br />
|l<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
<br />
|Nasal(voiced)<br />
|m<br />
|<br />
|n<br />
|<br />
|ɲ(ny) <br />
|ŋ(n) <br />
|<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
<br />
|Labialized <br />
Nasal (voiced) <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|ɲʷ(nw) <br />
|ŋʷ(nw) <br />
|<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
<br />
<br />
|Glide (voiced) <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|r <br />
| <br />
|y <br />
|w <br />
|<br />
|-valign="top" <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
Akan consonants, just like other consonants in other languages are named depending on where they are produced in the mouth, the manner by which they were produced and whether there is the presence of voicing or not. Based on the above table, the consonants will be discussed in terms of the following:<br />
<br />
A. Place of articulation: <br />
where the name of the consonant depends on which part of the mouth it is articulated. <br />
<br />
[p, b, m] are the Bilabial consonants because the are articulated with the two lips<br />
Example n:<br />
'''Akan English Akan English Akan English'''<br />
/papa/ 'father' /ɔbaa/ 'girl' /maame/ 'mother'<br />
<br />
[f] is the only Labio-dental consonant in Akan. It is articulated with the lower lip and the upper teeth.<br />
Example n:<br />
'''Akan English''' <br />
/fɛrɪ/ 'shy'<br />
<br />
[t, d, s, l, n, r] are known as the Alveolar consonants because they are articulated with the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge.<br />
Example n:<br />
'''Akan English Akan English Akan English'''<br />
/atadeɛ/ 'clothe' /sɪrɪ/ 'laughs' /ɛnora/ 'yesterday'<br />
<br />
[hy, hw, ky, gy]<br />
<br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Tone<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language] is a tone language and which tones are used; does [your language] have lexical tone?<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic syllable structures of [your language].<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[Typological Features Template for Akan - morpho-syntax]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Akan]]</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Typological_Features_Template_for_Akan&diff=4561Talk:Typological Features Template for Akan2010-03-23T14:22:32Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>Consonants: you have used the wrong symbols for 'hy' and 'hw' - use ɕ (character code 0255) and ɕʷ. The symbols for 'gy' and 'ky' are correct.<br />
<br />
Is it possible to make the table columns narrower? They seem too wide for the screen.<br />
<br />
You don't really need to write so many words - clear headings are enough I think.<br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 14:22, 23 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi again, here the missing vowels, Lilian - with courtesy from Mary Esther:<br />
<br />
'''Unadvanced vowels in Doulos SIL'''<br />
<br />
* Unadvanced High back ʊ (028A) or ʋ (028B) – doesn’t matter which but be consistent<br />
* Unadvanced Mid front ɛ (025B)<br />
* Unadvanced Mid back ɔ (0254)<br />
* Unadvanced High front ɩ (0269) or ɪ (026A) <br />
* Unadvanced Low (mid) a<br />
<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee Beermann]] 08:45, 12 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hi again <br />
There is still a font problem - the nasalized vowels (section B) don't look right. Also at the end of this section on nasalized vowels, where you say that certain vowels are only nasalised in Fante, there is something wrong - 'o' appears twice!<br />
<br />
Under Long vowels - can all 9 or 10 vowels occur as long vowels? Can all the nasalized vowels occur long? You should state specifically which ones can or can't.<br />
Example 2 only demonstrates 4 vowel letters - can't you think of one that shows all 7?<br />
<br />
Best, --[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 12:59, 9 March 2010 (UTC)Mary Esther<br />
<br />
Hi Mary Esther,<br />
Thanks alot for the corrections. Yes, I am having problems with the nasalized vowels. I am still working on it. It has something to do with the computer and the NTNU-server or something like that. I am still working on it. I will make sure the right ones are there :-)<br />
<br />
Thanks again.<br />
Lilian<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian<br />
<br />
I have just gone over the phonology section, and it seems to me you got started on the wrong foot, probably because of what was there already. I suggest you go straight to the 9/10 vowel system and only mention at the end of it that in the orthography the -Advanced vowels are written e and o, so that those letters stand for 2 sounds each. You could then use the 2 example sentences to demonstrate this, showing the phonetic vowels in the second line. <br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 12:35, 8 March 2010 (UTC)Mary Esther Dakubu<br />
<br />
Another point worthwhile thinking about has to do with the two annotated examples inserted in the phonology section. In particular the first one does not seem representative really, since what we would like to exemplify are the phonological features that are characteristic for Akan.<br />
Perhaps we can find better examples.<br />
<br />
Another point is that one should really make sure that one has these examples annotated for the phonological features that one discusses in this section of the template. That might not yet be the case. Hm... <br />
It might be necessary to go back into the database and improve somewhat on the annotation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 12:16, 8 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian, <br />
<br />
I used the keyboard to put in a nasalized ''ẽ''. I hope that was the vowel you were looking for. --[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 12:08, 8 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi again,<br />
<br />
I changed a little the opening text slightly, since I was worried that one highlighted in the old text certain dialects and forgot others.<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 11:38, 5 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian,<br />
<br />
Here something seems to have gone wrong with the representation of the third vowel. :)<br />
<br />
Vowels [o, 3, ), o] are only nasalised in the Fanti dialects.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Justus Turamyomwe|Justus Turamyomwe]] 11:56, 2 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Akan templates - comments ==<br />
<br />
Hello Lilian<br />
<br />
Some comments on the templates you have just started:<br />
<br />
General Akan <br />
<br />
1. I'm surprised you use the expression "Fanti Twi" - Fantes wouldn't like it. Just Fante is more normal - other dialects are called Twi. Also I am surprised that you spell them Asanti and Fanti instead of Asante and Fante, and Akuapem.<br />
<br />
2. Vowel inventory: there is some confusion between phonology and orthography here. The 7 "main vowels" are the orthographic representation, but there are in fact 9 or 10 vowels, depending on the dialect, which divide into 2 sets, one +ATR and one -ATR. In the orthography the mid +ATR and the high +ATR are collapsed, so that the letters e and o represent 2 contrastive vowels each. This should be clarified, because what the template is most interested in is the phonological contrasts. But the note that the orthography doesn't reflect all the contrasts is of course in order.<br />
<br />
3. nasalization - hasn't appeared properly on the high vowels. Are you sure you are using a Unicode 8 font? I strongly suggest Doulos SIL, or Charis SIL. If you type the material in Word and paste it in it should work very well.<br />
<br />
<br />
Asante template<br />
<br />
1. You are using the wrong symbol for the high front -ATR vowel - see comments above.<br />
<br />
2. The sentence on Vowel Harmony is very awkward and needs revision. Tongue Root Position is not a "system" - You need something like "The sequence of vowels within the word is governed by vowel harmony based on tongue root position. The vowels divide into two sets based on this feature..."<br />
<br />
<br />
Keep up the good work.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 11:54, 3 March 2010 (UTC)</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Typological_Features_Template_for_Akan&diff=4560Talk:Typological Features Template for Akan2010-03-23T14:17:52Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>Consonants: you have used the wrong symbols for 'hy' and 'hw' - use ɕ (character code 0255) and ɕʷ<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi again, here the missing vowels, Lilian - with courtesy from Mary Esther:<br />
<br />
'''Unadvanced vowels in Doulos SIL'''<br />
<br />
* Unadvanced High back ʊ (028A) or ʋ (028B) – doesn’t matter which but be consistent<br />
* Unadvanced Mid front ɛ (025B)<br />
* Unadvanced Mid back ɔ (0254)<br />
* Unadvanced High front ɩ (0269) or ɪ (026A) <br />
* Unadvanced Low (mid) a<br />
<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee Beermann]] 08:45, 12 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hi again <br />
There is still a font problem - the nasalized vowels (section B) don't look right. Also at the end of this section on nasalized vowels, where you say that certain vowels are only nasalised in Fante, there is something wrong - 'o' appears twice!<br />
<br />
Under Long vowels - can all 9 or 10 vowels occur as long vowels? Can all the nasalized vowels occur long? You should state specifically which ones can or can't.<br />
Example 2 only demonstrates 4 vowel letters - can't you think of one that shows all 7?<br />
<br />
Best, --[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 12:59, 9 March 2010 (UTC)Mary Esther<br />
<br />
Hi Mary Esther,<br />
Thanks alot for the corrections. Yes, I am having problems with the nasalized vowels. I am still working on it. It has something to do with the computer and the NTNU-server or something like that. I am still working on it. I will make sure the right ones are there :-)<br />
<br />
Thanks again.<br />
Lilian<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian<br />
<br />
I have just gone over the phonology section, and it seems to me you got started on the wrong foot, probably because of what was there already. I suggest you go straight to the 9/10 vowel system and only mention at the end of it that in the orthography the -Advanced vowels are written e and o, so that those letters stand for 2 sounds each. You could then use the 2 example sentences to demonstrate this, showing the phonetic vowels in the second line. <br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 12:35, 8 March 2010 (UTC)Mary Esther Dakubu<br />
<br />
Another point worthwhile thinking about has to do with the two annotated examples inserted in the phonology section. In particular the first one does not seem representative really, since what we would like to exemplify are the phonological features that are characteristic for Akan.<br />
Perhaps we can find better examples.<br />
<br />
Another point is that one should really make sure that one has these examples annotated for the phonological features that one discusses in this section of the template. That might not yet be the case. Hm... <br />
It might be necessary to go back into the database and improve somewhat on the annotation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 12:16, 8 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian, <br />
<br />
I used the keyboard to put in a nasalized ''ẽ''. I hope that was the vowel you were looking for. --[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 12:08, 8 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi again,<br />
<br />
I changed a little the opening text slightly, since I was worried that one highlighted in the old text certain dialects and forgot others.<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 11:38, 5 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian,<br />
<br />
Here something seems to have gone wrong with the representation of the third vowel. :)<br />
<br />
Vowels [o, 3, ), o] are only nasalised in the Fanti dialects.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Justus Turamyomwe|Justus Turamyomwe]] 11:56, 2 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Akan templates - comments ==<br />
<br />
Hello Lilian<br />
<br />
Some comments on the templates you have just started:<br />
<br />
General Akan <br />
<br />
1. I'm surprised you use the expression "Fanti Twi" - Fantes wouldn't like it. Just Fante is more normal - other dialects are called Twi. Also I am surprised that you spell them Asanti and Fanti instead of Asante and Fante, and Akuapem.<br />
<br />
2. Vowel inventory: there is some confusion between phonology and orthography here. The 7 "main vowels" are the orthographic representation, but there are in fact 9 or 10 vowels, depending on the dialect, which divide into 2 sets, one +ATR and one -ATR. In the orthography the mid +ATR and the high +ATR are collapsed, so that the letters e and o represent 2 contrastive vowels each. This should be clarified, because what the template is most interested in is the phonological contrasts. But the note that the orthography doesn't reflect all the contrasts is of course in order.<br />
<br />
3. nasalization - hasn't appeared properly on the high vowels. Are you sure you are using a Unicode 8 font? I strongly suggest Doulos SIL, or Charis SIL. If you type the material in Word and paste it in it should work very well.<br />
<br />
<br />
Asante template<br />
<br />
1. You are using the wrong symbol for the high front -ATR vowel - see comments above.<br />
<br />
2. The sentence on Vowel Harmony is very awkward and needs revision. Tongue Root Position is not a "system" - You need something like "The sequence of vowels within the word is governed by vowel harmony based on tongue root position. The vowels divide into two sets based on this feature..."<br />
<br />
<br />
Keep up the good work.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 11:54, 3 March 2010 (UTC)</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Typological_Features_Template_for_Akan&diff=4326Talk:Typological Features Template for Akan2010-03-09T12:59:40Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>Hi again <br />
There is still a font problem - the nasalized vowels (section B) don't look right. Also at the end of this section on nasalized vowels, where you say that certain vowels are only nasalised in Fante, there is something wrong - 'o' appears twice!<br />
<br />
Under Long vowels - can all 9 or 10 vowels occur as long vowels? Can all the nasalized vowels occur long? You should state specifically which ones can or can't.<br />
Example 2 only demonstrates 4 vowel letters - can't you think of one that shows all 7?<br />
<br />
Best, --[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 12:59, 9 March 2010 (UTC)Mary Esther<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian<br />
<br />
I have just gone over the phonology section, and it seems to me you got started on the wrong foot, probably because of what was there already. I suggest you go straight to the 9/10 vowel system and only mention at the end of it that in the orthography the -Advanced vowels are written e and o, so that those letters stand for 2 sounds each. You could then use the 2 example sentences to demonstrate this, showing the phonetic vowels in the second line. <br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 12:35, 8 March 2010 (UTC)Mary Esther Dakubu<br />
<br />
Another point worthwhile thinking about has to do with the two annotated examples inserted in the phonology section. In particular the first one does not seem representative really, since what we would like to exemplify are the phonological features that are characteristic for Akan.<br />
Perhaps we can find better examples.<br />
<br />
Another point is that one should really make sure that one has these examples annotated for the phonological features that one discusses in this section of the template. That might not yet be the case. Hm... <br />
It might be necessary to go back into the database and improve somewhat on the annotation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 12:16, 8 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian, <br />
<br />
I used the keyboard to put in a nasalized ''ẽ''. I hope that was the vowel you were looking for. --[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 12:08, 8 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi again,<br />
<br />
I changed a little the opening text slightly, since I was worried that one highlighted in the old text certain dialects and forgot others.<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 11:38, 5 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian,<br />
<br />
Here something seems to have gone wrong with the representation of the third vowel. :)<br />
<br />
Vowels [o, 3, ), o] are only nasalised in the Fanti dialects.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Justus Turamyomwe|Justus Turamyomwe]] 11:56, 2 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Akan templates - comments ==<br />
<br />
Hello Lilian<br />
<br />
Some comments on the templates you have just started:<br />
<br />
General Akan <br />
<br />
1. I'm surprised you use the expression "Fanti Twi" - Fantes wouldn't like it. Just Fante is more normal - other dialects are called Twi. Also I am surprised that you spell them Asanti and Fanti instead of Asante and Fante, and Akuapem.<br />
<br />
2. Vowel inventory: there is some confusion between phonology and orthography here. The 7 "main vowels" are the orthographic representation, but there are in fact 9 or 10 vowels, depending on the dialect, which divide into 2 sets, one +ATR and one -ATR. In the orthography the mid +ATR and the high +ATR are collapsed, so that the letters e and o represent 2 contrastive vowels each. This should be clarified, because what the template is most interested in is the phonological contrasts. But the note that the orthography doesn't reflect all the contrasts is of course in order.<br />
<br />
3. nasalization - hasn't appeared properly on the high vowels. Are you sure you are using a Unicode 8 font? I strongly suggest Doulos SIL, or Charis SIL. If you type the material in Word and paste it in it should work very well.<br />
<br />
<br />
Asante template<br />
<br />
1. You are using the wrong symbol for the high front -ATR vowel - see comments above.<br />
<br />
2. The sentence on Vowel Harmony is very awkward and needs revision. Tongue Root Position is not a "system" - You need something like "The sequence of vowels within the word is governed by vowel harmony based on tongue root position. The vowels divide into two sets based on this feature..."<br />
<br />
<br />
Keep up the good work.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 11:54, 3 March 2010 (UTC)</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Akan&diff=4325Typological Features Template for Akan2010-03-09T12:53:23Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>By [[User: Lilian Haugereid| Lilian Haugereid]]<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|In the following I will describe the phonological inventory of Akan and the features that its dialects share. Some of these dialects are Asante, Fante and Akuapem as well as Bono. Dialects of Akan are mainly characterized by phonological differences, but other difference can also be described. The account we are providing here is directed towards a description of the grammatical features that all dialects of Akan share.<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel Inventory<br />
<br />
|Vowels in Akan are described here under five headings: oral, nasalised, and long vowels, diphthongs, and vowel harmony (or vowel combinations across syllables).<br />
<br />
<br />
== A. Oral Vowels ==<br />
<br />
Akan has 9 or 10 oral vowels, depending on the dialect: [e,ɔ,a,o,ɛ i,u,ɪ,æ,ʊ ]. In some dialects [æ] is not used, and is replaced by [a].<br />
<br />
In the orthography, the letters e and o represent two contrastive vowels each: e represents both [e] and [ɪ], and o represents both [o] and [ʊ].<br />
<br />
For example 1:<br />
<br />
''' Akan Ph.Trans English Akan Ph.Trans English'''<br />
te(w) /tɪ(w)/ 'tear' kɛsi /kɛsɪ/ 'big'<br />
fie /fie/ 'home' esiw/esie /(esiw)(esie)/ 'anthill'<br />
to(w) /tʊw/ 'throw' horo /hʊhʊ/ 'wash'<br />
obi /obi/ 'someone' ako /ako/ 'parrot'<br />
<br />
NB"Ph.Trans" refers to phonetic transcription. <br />
<br />
As can be seen from example 1 above, the vowel e in orthography represents vowels /ɪ/ and /e/, and the vowel o represents /o/, and/ʊ/. So in any written Akan text, you will find these 7 vowel letters: i e ɛ a ɔ o u, as in the Akan sentence below.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
<Phrase>162</Phrase> <br />
<br />
The two different sets of Akan vowels based on ATR is discussed under "Vowel Harmony" below.<br />
<br />
NB: It can also be mentioned here that the vowels carry tone(s); (as examplified above), which will be discussed later under "Tone" <br />
<br />
== B. Nasalised Vowels ==<br />
<br />
Nasalisation is an important phonological feature in Akan. It can for example bring changes in meaning. There are five nasalised vowels and they are marked in transcription by placing (~), which is normally called the tilde, above the vowel.<br />
<br />
These are the five nasalised vowels: ἶ, ĩ, ã, ẽ, ῦ, and ũ <br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
''' Fante Asante Akuapem English'''<br />
hũ - hu hũ - hu hũw - huw see - blow (air) <br />
<br />
(Dolphyne 1988:4) <br />
<br />
As a result of assimilation, a neighbouring nasal sound can give its nasalitiy quality to a vowel; as in this word:<br />
<br />
nkwa: /ŋ̃kʷã/ - 'life'<br />
<br />
NB: Vowels [o, ɛ, ɔ, o] are only nasalised in the Fante dialects<br />
<br />
<br />
== C. Long Vowels ==<br />
<br />
<br />
Vowels in Akan can either be long or short. The length of the vowel can determine the meaning difference of some words in the language. In orthography, long vowels are represented by doubling them.<br />
<br />
Examples 4:<br />
'''Akan English Akan English'''<br />
da sleep daa everyday<br />
sa dance saa exactly <br />
kɔ go kɔɔ red<br />
<br />
<br />
== D. Diphthongs ==<br />
<br />
As indicated above, the occurrence of identical vowels in an Akan word is considered as long vowels. There are also occurrence of sequences of nonidentical vowels. These are produced when the tongue glides from one articulation to another.<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
<Phrase>8704</Phrase><br />
<br />
As can be seen in example 5, the verb 'dae' has the vowels [a] and and [ɪ] articulated by the tongue gliding from the central part of the mouth to the middle front part. <br />
<br />
== E. Disyllabic Vowel Combinations ==<br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| <br />
The harmony of vowels is defined as the restriction on the occurence of certain vowels in the same word. In the production of Akan vowels, the position of the tongue determines whether a vowel has the feature "advanced tongue root" or "retracted tongue root", +ATR and -ATR respectively. The + Advanced Tongue root vowels are produced by pushing the root of the tongue forward. For the production of the unadvanced tongue root vowels. The root of the tongue is retracted or pushed backward.<br />
<br />
Set A(+ATR) [i, e, æ, o, u]<br />
<br />
Set B(-ATR) [ɪ, ɛ, a, ɔ, ʊ]<br />
<br />
This feature places restrictions on the occurrence of vowels from set A and set B. Most Akan words have vowels from either set A or B.<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
''' +ATR English -ATR English'''<br />
/koko/ 'chest' /kɔkɔ(w)/ 'red'<br />
/Kun(u)/ 'husband' /kʊn/ 'neck' <br />
<br />
/efie/ 'home' /ɛfɪɛ/ 'vomit'<br />
*/adi/ 'has eaten' /ædɪ/ 'thing' <br />
<br />
So the vowels can be paired as below; those on the left +ATR and on the right -ATR. The front vowels are produced with the front, the central, the center of the tongue and the back, the back part of the tongue.<br />
<br />
'''Front Central Back'''<br />
i/ɪ æ/a o/ɔ<br />
e/ɛ ʊ/u<br />
<br />
Harmony Exceptions:<br />
The asterisk (*) placed on the last example under 'Example 6' is because of the occurrence of vowel /a/. In dialects that do not have /æ/, /a/ can occur in words with both Advanced or Unadvanced vowels.<br />
<br />
<br />
The table below shows an overview of the vowels in the language.<br />
<br />
Orthography Phonetic Symbols Set A Set B <br />
i i i<br />
e ɪ ɪ<br />
ɛ e e <br />
ɛ ɛ<br />
<br />
a æ æ<br />
a a<br />
<br />
<br />
ɔ ɔ ɔ<br />
o o o<br />
u ʊ ʊ<br />
u u<br />
<br />
In summary, these are the vowels and their names in Akan:<br />
<br />
i Advanced High Front vowel<br />
ɪ Unadvanced High Front vowel<br />
e Advanced Mid Front vowel<br />
ɛ Unadvanced Mid Front vowel<br />
æ Advanced Low Central vowel<br />
a Undvanced Low Central vowel<br />
o Adavnced Mid Back vowel<br />
ɔ Unadvanced Mid Back vowel<br />
u Advanced High Back vowel<br />
ʊ Unadvanced High Back vowel<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| In this field you describe the consonants of [your language] <br />
|-<br />
|Tone<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language] is a tone language and which tones are used; does [your language] have lexical tone?<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic syllable structures of [your language].<br />
|-<br />
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''<br />
|In the following fields you describe some of the basic morpho-syntactic parameters of [your language]<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (1)<br />
|[Your language] could be an isolating language (not (or nearly not) making use of morphology, agglutinative, such as the Bantu languages of Africa, or synthetic, such as the Saami languages of Scandinavia, or even polysynthetic such as Greenlandic. In this field you classify [your language] according to these parameters if possible.<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (2)<br />
|Linguists have distinguished between head- and dependent-marking languages. Semitic languages are head marking languages; it is the head of the noun phrases that needs to have a special form when followed by a dependent noun; in the Germanic languages it is the head of the verb phrase that expresses person-number features of its subject. Grammatical dependencies on the other hand are in some of the Germanic languages expressed on the dependent noun phrases in form of case. [Your language] might be both, head- and dependent-marking, depending on the category of speech and or the type of feature expressed. This is what you can describe in this field.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Nominal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields follows a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|syntactic structure<br />
|In this field you describe the linear order of elements in the noun phrase <br />
|-<br />
|nominal modification<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic types of nominal modification (adjectives, relative clauses, adpositions...)<br />
|-<br />
|nominal specification<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic types of specification. Does [your language] have determiners, demonstratives (deixis), numerals, quantifiers. Are there affixes expressing reference, deixis. Are there nouns or other elements expression a portion of a noun that the co-occur with?<br />
|-<br />
|possession<br />
|In this field you describe how possession is expressed (for example, syntactically or by use of prepositions, through juxtaposition or morphologically) Does [your language] feature possessive pronouns?<br />
|-<br />
|pronominal system<br />
| In this field you indicate if [your language] has free pronoun forms? Are pronouns marked for their grammatical function (object versus subject pronouns)? Does your language have bound pronouns (affixes) or pronoun doubling? Are reflexives expressed by pronouns?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Verbal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields serve for the description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|word order<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic word order of your language (SOV, SOV ...)<br />
|-<br />
|TAM <br />
|In this field you indicate which tense and/or aspects are morphologically or tonally marked; does [your language] make use of periphrastic tense or aspect constructions?<br />
|-<br />
|infinitival forms<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language] makes use of an infinitive marker? How many infinitival forms does your language have?<br />
|-<br />
|verbal constructions<br />
| In this field you indicate if [your language] has ditransitive constructions, serial verb constructions or complex verb forms composed of several verbs. Does your language have so called light verbs, perhaps only used to indicate a certain tense or aspect?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Adpositions'''<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language[ makes use of prepositions or postpositions. Does your language have spatial nouns? Does your language use adpositions or particles to indicate grammatical relations between the verb and a nominal argument?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Complementation'''<br />
| In this field you describe complementation strategies. Does [your language] make use of complementizers?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Special Properties of [your language]<br />
| In this field you should mention properties of [your language] which did not fit into any of the other categories mentioned in this template<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Akan]]</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Typological_Features_Template_for_Akan&diff=4324Talk:Typological Features Template for Akan2010-03-09T12:38:01Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>Hi again <br />
There is still a font problem - the nasalized vowels (section B) don't look right<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian<br />
<br />
I have just gone over the phonology section, and it seems to me you got started on the wrong foot, probably because of what was there already. I suggest you go straight to the 9/10 vowel system and only mention at the end of it that in the orthography the -Advanced vowels are written e and o, so that those letters stand for 2 sounds each. You could then use the 2 example sentences to demonstrate this, showing the phonetic vowels in the second line. <br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 12:35, 8 March 2010 (UTC)Mary Esther Dakubu<br />
<br />
Another point worthwhile thinking about has to do with the two annotated examples inserted in the phonology section. In particular the first one does not seem representative really, since what we would like to exemplify are the phonological features that are characteristic for Akan.<br />
Perhaps we can find better examples.<br />
<br />
Another point is that one should really make sure that one has these examples annotated for the phonological features that one discusses in this section of the template. That might not yet be the case. Hm... <br />
It might be necessary to go back into the database and improve somewhat on the annotation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 12:16, 8 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian, <br />
<br />
I used the keyboard to put in a nasalized ''ẽ''. I hope that was the vowel you were looking for. --[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 12:08, 8 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi again,<br />
<br />
I changed a little the opening text slightly, since I was worried that one highlighted in the old text certain dialects and forgot others.<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 11:38, 5 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian,<br />
<br />
Here something seems to have gone wrong with the representation of the third vowel. :)<br />
<br />
Vowels [o, 3, ), o] are only nasalised in the Fanti dialects.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Justus Turamyomwe|Justus Turamyomwe]] 11:56, 2 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Akan templates - comments ==<br />
<br />
Hello Lilian<br />
<br />
Some comments on the templates you have just started:<br />
<br />
General Akan <br />
<br />
1. I'm surprised you use the expression "Fanti Twi" - Fantes wouldn't like it. Just Fante is more normal - other dialects are called Twi. Also I am surprised that you spell them Asanti and Fanti instead of Asante and Fante, and Akuapem.<br />
<br />
2. Vowel inventory: there is some confusion between phonology and orthography here. The 7 "main vowels" are the orthographic representation, but there are in fact 9 or 10 vowels, depending on the dialect, which divide into 2 sets, one +ATR and one -ATR. In the orthography the mid +ATR and the high +ATR are collapsed, so that the letters e and o represent 2 contrastive vowels each. This should be clarified, because what the template is most interested in is the phonological contrasts. But the note that the orthography doesn't reflect all the contrasts is of course in order.<br />
<br />
3. nasalization - hasn't appeared properly on the high vowels. Are you sure you are using a Unicode 8 font? I strongly suggest Doulos SIL, or Charis SIL. If you type the material in Word and paste it in it should work very well.<br />
<br />
<br />
Asante template<br />
<br />
1. You are using the wrong symbol for the high front -ATR vowel - see comments above.<br />
<br />
2. The sentence on Vowel Harmony is very awkward and needs revision. Tongue Root Position is not a "system" - You need something like "The sequence of vowels within the word is governed by vowel harmony based on tongue root position. The vowels divide into two sets based on this feature..."<br />
<br />
<br />
Keep up the good work.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 11:54, 3 March 2010 (UTC)</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Akan&diff=4323Typological Features Template for Akan2010-03-09T12:35:51Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>By [[User: Lilian Haugereid| Lilian Haugereid]]<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|In the following I will describe the phonological inventory of Akan and the features that its dialects share. Some of these dialects are Asante, Fante and Akuapem as well as Bono. Dialects of Akan are mainly characterized by phonological differences, but other difference can also be described. The account we are providing here is directed towards a description of the grammatical features that all dialects of Akan share.<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel Inventory<br />
<br />
|Vowels in Akan are described here under five headings: oral, nasalised, and long vowels, diphthongs, and vowel harmony (or vowel combinations across syllables).<br />
<br />
<br />
== A. Oral Vowels ==<br />
<br />
Akan has 9 or 10 oral vowels, depending on the dialect: [e,ɔ,a,o,ɛ i,u,ɪ,æ,ʊ ]. In some dialects [æ] is not used, and is replaced by [a].<br />
<br />
In the orthography, the letters e and o represent two contrastive vowels each: e represents both [e] and [ɪ], and o represents both [o] and [ʊ].<br />
<br />
For example 1:<br />
<br />
''' Akan Ph.Trans English Akan Ph.Trans English'''<br />
te(w) /tɪ(w)/ 'tear' kɛsi /kɛsɪ/ 'big'<br />
fie /fie/ 'home' esiw/esie /(esiw)(esie)/ 'anthill'<br />
to(w) /tʊw/ 'throw' horo /hʊhʊ/ 'wash'<br />
obi /obi/ 'someone' ako /ako/ 'parrot'<br />
<br />
NB"Ph.Trans" refers to phonetic transcription. <br />
<br />
As can be seen from example 1 above, the vowel e in orthography represents vowels /ɪ/ and /e/, and the vowel o represents /o/, and/ʊ/. So in any written Akan text, you will find these 7 vowel letters: i e ɛ a ɔ o u, as in the Akan sentence below.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
<Phrase>162</Phrase> <br />
<br />
The two different sets of Akan vowels based ATR is discussed under "Vowel Harmnoy" below.<br />
<br />
NB: It can also be mentioned here that the vowels carry tone(s); (as examplified above), which will be discussed later under "Tone" <br />
<br />
== B. Nasalised Vowels ==<br />
<br />
Nasalisation is an important phonological feature in Akan. It can for example bring changes in meaning. There are five nasalised vowels and they are marked in transcription by placing (~), which is normally called the tilde, above the vowel.<br />
<br />
These are the five nasalised vowels: ἶ, ĩ, ã, ẽ, ῦ, and ũ <br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
''' Fante Asante Akuapem English'''<br />
hũ - hu hũ - hu hũw - huw see - blow (air) <br />
<br />
(Dolphyne 1988:4)<br />
<br />
NB: In most cases the difference between Fante and Asante is tone. <br />
<br />
As a result of assimilation, a neighbouring nasal sound, can give its nasalitiy quality to a vowel; as in this word:<br />
<br />
nkwa: /ŋ̃kʷã/ - 'life'<br />
<br />
NB: Vowels [o, ɛ, ɔ, o] are only nasalised in the Fante dialects<br />
<br />
<br />
== C. Long Vowels ==<br />
<br />
<br />
Vowels in Akan can either be long or short. The length of the vowel can determine the meaning difference of some words in the language. In orthography, long vowels are represented by doubling them.<br />
<br />
Examples 4:<br />
'''Akan English Akan English'''<br />
da sleep daa everyday<br />
sa dance saa exactly <br />
kɔ go kɔɔ red<br />
<br />
<br />
== D. Diphthongs ==<br />
<br />
As indicated above, the occurrence of identical vowels in an Akan word is considered as long vowels. There are also the occurance of a sequence of unidentical vowels. These are produced when the tongue glides from one articulation to another.<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
<Phrase>8704</Phrase><br />
<br />
As can be seen in example 5, the verb 'dae' has the vowels [a] and and [e] articulated by the tongue gliding from the central part of the mouth to the middle front part. <br />
<br />
== E. Disyllabic Vowel Combinations ==<br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| <br />
The harmony of vowels is defined as the restriction on the occurance of certain vowels in the same word. As already mentioned above, in the production of Akan vowels, the position of the tongue determines whether a vowel has the feature "advanced tongue root" or "retracted tongue root", +ATR and -ATR respectively. The + Advanced Tongue root vowels are produced by pushing the root of the tongue forward and it is the opposite for the production of the unadvanced tongue root vowels. The root of the tongue is retracted or pushed backward.<br />
<br />
Set A(+ATR) [i, e, æ, o, u]<br />
<br />
Set B(-ATR) [ɪ, ɛ, a, ɔ, ʊ]<br />
<br />
It is known that this feature places the restriction on the occurrance of vowels from set A and set B. Most Akan words have vowels from either set A or B.<br />
<br />
Example 6:<br />
''' +ATR English -ATR English'''<br />
/koko/ 'chest' /kɔkɔ(w)/ 'red'<br />
/Kun(u)/ 'husband' /kʊn/ 'neck' <br />
<br />
/efie/ 'home' /ɛfɪɛ/ 'vomit'<br />
*/adi/ 'has eaten' /ædɪ/ 'thing' <br />
<br />
So the vowels can be paired as belwo; those on the left +ATR and on the right -ATR. The front vowels are produced with the front, the central, the center of the tongue and the back, the back part of the tongue.<br />
<br />
'''Front Central Back'''<br />
i/ɪ æ/a o/ɔ<br />
e/ɛ ʊ/u<br />
<br />
Harmany Exceptions:<br />
The asterisk(*) placed on the last example under 'Example 6' is because the occurance of vowel /a/<br />
<br />
<br />
The table below shows an overview of the vowels in the language.<br />
<br />
Orthography Phonetic Symbols Set A Set B <br />
i i i<br />
e ɪ ɪ<br />
ɛ e e <br />
ɛ ɛ<br />
<br />
a æ æ<br />
a a<br />
<br />
<br />
ɔ ɔ ɔ<br />
o o o<br />
u ʊ ʊ<br />
u u<br />
<br />
In summary, these are the vowels and their names in Akan:<br />
<br />
i Advanced High Front vowel<br />
ɪ Unadvanced High Front vowel<br />
e Advanced Mid Front vowel<br />
ɛ Unadvanced Mid Front vowel<br />
æ Advanced Low Central vowel<br />
a Undvanced Low Central vowel<br />
o Adavnced Mid Back vowel<br />
ɔ Unadvanced Mid Back vowel<br />
u Advanced High Back vowel<br />
ʊ Unadvanced High Back vowel<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| In this field you describe the consonants of [your language] <br />
|-<br />
|Tone<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language] is a tone language and which tones are used; does [your language] have lexical tone?<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic syllable structures of [your language].<br />
|-<br />
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''<br />
|In the following fields you describe some of the basic morpho-syntactic parameters of [your language]<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (1)<br />
|[Your language] could be an isolating language (not (or nearly not) making use of morphology, agglutinative, such as the Bantu languages of Africa, or synthetic, such as the Saami languages of Scandinavia, or even polysynthetic such as Greenlandic. In this field you classify [your language] according to these parameters if possible.<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (2)<br />
|Linguists have distinguished between head- and dependent-marking languages. Semitic languages are head marking languages; it is the head of the noun phrases that needs to have a special form when followed by a dependent noun; in the Germanic languages it is the head of the verb phrase that expresses person-number features of its subject. Grammatical dependencies on the other hand are in some of the Germanic languages expressed on the dependent noun phrases in form of case. [Your language] might be both, head- and dependent-marking, depending on the category of speech and or the type of feature expressed. This is what you can describe in this field.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Nominal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields follows a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|syntactic structure<br />
|In this field you describe the linear order of elements in the noun phrase <br />
|-<br />
|nominal modification<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic types of nominal modification (adjectives, relative clauses, adpositions...)<br />
|-<br />
|nominal specification<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic types of specification. Does [your language] have determiners, demonstratives (deixis), numerals, quantifiers. Are there affixes expressing reference, deixis. Are there nouns or other elements expression a portion of a noun that the co-occur with?<br />
|-<br />
|possession<br />
|In this field you describe how possession is expressed (for example, syntactically or by use of prepositions, through juxtaposition or morphologically) Does [your language] feature possessive pronouns?<br />
|-<br />
|pronominal system<br />
| In this field you indicate if [your language] has free pronoun forms? Are pronouns marked for their grammatical function (object versus subject pronouns)? Does your language have bound pronouns (affixes) or pronoun doubling? Are reflexives expressed by pronouns?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Verbal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields serve for the description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|word order<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic word order of your language (SOV, SOV ...)<br />
|-<br />
|TAM <br />
|In this field you indicate which tense and/or aspects are morphologically or tonally marked; does [your language] make use of periphrastic tense or aspect constructions?<br />
|-<br />
|infinitival forms<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language] makes use of an infinitive marker? How many infinitival forms does your language have?<br />
|-<br />
|verbal constructions<br />
| In this field you indicate if [your language] has ditransitive constructions, serial verb constructions or complex verb forms composed of several verbs. Does your language have so called light verbs, perhaps only used to indicate a certain tense or aspect?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Adpositions'''<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language[ makes use of prepositions or postpositions. Does your language have spatial nouns? Does your language use adpositions or particles to indicate grammatical relations between the verb and a nominal argument?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Complementation'''<br />
| In this field you describe complementation strategies. Does [your language] make use of complementizers?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Special Properties of [your language]<br />
| In this field you should mention properties of [your language] which did not fit into any of the other categories mentioned in this template<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Akan]]</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Akan&diff=4320Typological Features Template for Akan2010-03-09T12:17:05Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>By [[User: Lilian Haugereid| Lilian Haugereid]]<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|In the following I will describe the phonological inventory of Akan and the features that its dialects share. Some of these dialects are Asante, Fante and Akuapem as well as Bono. Dialects of Akan are mainly characterized by phonological differences, but other difference can also be described. The account we are providing here is directed towards a description of the grammatical features that all dialects of Akan share.<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel Inventory<br />
<br />
|Vowels in Akan are described here under five headings: oral, nasalised, and long vowels, diphthongs, and vowel harmony.<br />
<br />
<br />
== A. Oral Vowels ==<br />
<br />
Akan has 9/10 vowels, depending on the dialect: [e,ɔ,a,o,ɛ i,u,ɪ,æ,ʊ ]<br />
This is because Akan has the phonological feature Advanced Tongue Root (ATR), and for that matter the vowels are divided into two sets, one + ATR and the other - ATR. In the orthography, the advanced vowels e and o represent two contrastive vowels, so that these vowels represent two vowel sounds.<br />
<br />
For example 1:<br />
<br />
''' Akan Ph.Trans English Akan Ph.Trans English'''<br />
te(w) /tɪ(w)/ 'tear' kɛsi /kɛsɪ/ 'big'<br />
fie /fie/ 'home' esiw/esie /(esiw)(esie)/ 'anthill'<br />
to(w) /tʊw/ 'trow' horo /hʊhʊ/ 'wash'<br />
obi /obi/ 'someone' ako /ako/ 'parrot'<br />
<br />
NB"Ph.Trans" refers to phonetic translation. <br />
<br />
As can be seen from example 1 above, vowel e in orthography represents vowels /ɪ/, and /e/ and vowel o represents /o/, and/ʊ/. So in any written Akan text, you will find these 7 vowels main vowels: i e ɛ a ɔ o u, as in the Akan sentence below.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
<Phrase>162</Phrase> <br />
<br />
The two different sets of Akan vowels based ATR is discussed under "Vowel Harmnoy" below.<br />
<br />
NB: It can also be mentioned here that the vowels mostly carry tone(s); (as examplifeid above) which will be discussed later under "Tone" <br />
<br />
== B. Nasalised Vowels ==<br />
<br />
Nasalisation is an important phonological feature in Akan. It can for example bring changes in meaning. There are five nasalised vowels and they are marked in transcription by placing (~), which is normally called the tilde, above the vowel.<br />
<br />
These are the five nasalised vowels: ἶ, ĩ, ã, ẽ, ῦ, and ũ <br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
''' Fante Asante Akuapem English'''<br />
hũ - hu hũ - hu hũw - huw see - blow (air) <br />
<br />
(Dolphyne 1988:4)<br />
<br />
NB: In most cases the difference between Fante and Asante is tone. <br />
<br />
As a result of assimilation, a neighbouring nasal sound, can give its nasalitiy quality to a vowel; as in this word:<br />
<br />
nkwa: /ŋ̃kʷã/ - 'life'<br />
<br />
NB: Vowels [o, ɛ, ɔ, o] are only nasalised in the Fante dialects<br />
<br />
<br />
== C. Long Vowels ==<br />
<br />
<br />
Vowels in Akan can either be long or short. The length of the vowel can determine the meaning difference of some words in the language. In orthography, long vowels are represented by doubling them.<br />
<br />
Examples 4:<br />
'''Akan English Akan English'''<br />
da sleep daa everyday<br />
sa dance saa exactly <br />
kɔ go kɔɔ red<br />
<br />
<br />
== D. Diphthongs ==<br />
<br />
As indicated above, the occurrence of identical vowels in an Akan word is considered as long vowels. There are also the occurance of a sequence of unidentical vowels. These are produced when the tongue glides from one articulation to another.<br />
<br />
== E. Disyllabic Vowel Combinations ==<br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| <br />
The harmony of vowels is defined as the restriction on the occurance of certain vowels in the same word. As already mentioned above, in the production of Akan vowels, the position of the tongue determines whether a vowel has the feature "advanced tongue root" or "retracted tongue root", +ATR and -ATR respectively. The + Advanced Tongue root vowels are produced by pushing the root of the tongue forward and it is the opposite for the production of the unadvanced tongue root vowels. The root of the tongue is retracted or pushed backward.<br />
<br />
Set A(+ATR) [i, e, æ, o, u]<br />
<br />
Set B(-ATR) [ɪ, ɛ, a, ɔ, ʊ]<br />
<br />
It is known that this feature places the restriction on the occurrance of vowels from set A and set B. Most Akan words have vowels from either set A or B.<br />
<br />
Example 5:<br />
''' +ATR English -ATR English'''<br />
/koko/ 'chest' /kɔkɔ(w)/ 'red'<br />
/Kun(u)/ 'husband' /kʊn/ 'neck' <br />
<br />
/efie/ 'home' /ɛfɪɛ/ 'vomit'<br />
*/adi/ 'has eaten' /ædɪ/ 'thing' <br />
<br />
So the vowels can be paired as belwo; those on the left +ATR and on the right -ATR. The front vowels are produced with the front, the central, the center of the tongue and the back, the back part of the tongue.<br />
<br />
'''Front Central Back'''<br />
i/ɪ æ/a o/ɔ<br />
e/ɛ ʊ/u<br />
<br />
Harmany Exceptions:<br />
The asterisk(*) placed on the last example under 'Example 5' is because the occurance of vowel /a/<br />
<br />
<br />
The table below shows an overview of the vowels in the language.<br />
<br />
Orthography Phonetic Symbols Set A Set B <br />
i i i<br />
e ɪ ɪ<br />
ɛ e e <br />
ɛ ɛ<br />
<br />
a æ æ<br />
a a<br />
<br />
<br />
ɔ ɔ ɔ<br />
o o o<br />
u ʊ ʊ<br />
u u<br />
<br />
In summary, these are the vowels and their names in Akan:<br />
<br />
i Advanced High Front vowel<br />
ɪ Unadvanced High Front vowel<br />
e Advanced Mid Front vowel<br />
ɛ Unadvanced Mid Front vowel<br />
æ Advanced Low Central vowel<br />
a Undvanced Low Central vowel<br />
o Adavnced Mid Back vowel<br />
ɔ Unadvanced Mid Back vowel<br />
u Advanced High Back vowel<br />
ʊ Unadvanced High Back vowel<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| In this field you describe the consonants of [your language] <br />
|-<br />
|Tone<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language] is a tone language and which tones are used; does [your language] have lexical tone?<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic syllable structures of [your language].<br />
|-<br />
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''<br />
|In the following fields you describe some of the basic morpho-syntactic parameters of [your language]<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (1)<br />
|[Your language] could be an isolating language (not (or nearly not) making use of morphology, agglutinative, such as the Bantu languages of Africa, or synthetic, such as the Saami languages of Scandinavia, or even polysynthetic such as Greenlandic. In this field you classify [your language] according to these parameters if possible.<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (2)<br />
|Linguists have distinguished between head- and dependent-marking languages. Semitic languages are head marking languages; it is the head of the noun phrases that needs to have a special form when followed by a dependent noun; in the Germanic languages it is the head of the verb phrase that expresses person-number features of its subject. Grammatical dependencies on the other hand are in some of the Germanic languages expressed on the dependent noun phrases in form of case. [Your language] might be both, head- and dependent-marking, depending on the category of speech and or the type of feature expressed. This is what you can describe in this field.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Nominal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields follows a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|syntactic structure<br />
|In this field you describe the linear order of elements in the noun phrase <br />
|-<br />
|nominal modification<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic types of nominal modification (adjectives, relative clauses, adpositions...)<br />
|-<br />
|nominal specification<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic types of specification. Does [your language] have determiners, demonstratives (deixis), numerals, quantifiers. Are there affixes expressing reference, deixis. Are there nouns or other elements expression a portion of a noun that the co-occur with?<br />
|-<br />
|possession<br />
|In this field you describe how possession is expressed (for example, syntactically or by use of prepositions, through juxtaposition or morphologically) Does [your language] feature possessive pronouns?<br />
|-<br />
|pronominal system<br />
| In this field you indicate if [your language] has free pronoun forms? Are pronouns marked for their grammatical function (object versus subject pronouns)? Does your language have bound pronouns (affixes) or pronoun doubling? Are reflexives expressed by pronouns?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Verbal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields serve for the description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|word order<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic word order of your language (SOV, SOV ...)<br />
|-<br />
|TAM <br />
|In this field you indicate which tense and/or aspects are morphologically or tonally marked; does [your language] make use of periphrastic tense or aspect constructions?<br />
|-<br />
|infinitival forms<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language] makes use of an infinitive marker? How many infinitival forms does your language have?<br />
|-<br />
|verbal constructions<br />
| In this field you indicate if [your language] has ditransitive constructions, serial verb constructions or complex verb forms composed of several verbs. Does your language have so called light verbs, perhaps only used to indicate a certain tense or aspect?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Adpositions'''<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language[ makes use of prepositions or postpositions. Does your language have spatial nouns? Does your language use adpositions or particles to indicate grammatical relations between the verb and a nominal argument?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Complementation'''<br />
| In this field you describe complementation strategies. Does [your language] make use of complementizers?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Special Properties of [your language]<br />
| In this field you should mention properties of [your language] which did not fit into any of the other categories mentioned in this template<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Akan]]</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Typological_Features_Template_for_Akan&diff=4309Talk:Typological Features Template for Akan2010-03-08T12:35:57Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>Hi Lilian<br />
<br />
I have just gone over the phonology section, and it seems to me you got started on the wrong foot, probably because of what was there already. I suggest you go straight to the 9/10 vowel system and only mention at the end of it that in the orthography the -Advanced vowels are written e and o, so that those letters stand for 2 sounds each. You could then use the 2 example sentences to demonstrate this, showing the phonetic vowels in the second line. <br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 12:35, 8 March 2010 (UTC)Mary Esther Dakubu<br />
<br />
Another point worthwhile thinking about has to do with the two annotated examples inserted in the phonology section. In particular the first one does not seem representative really, since what we would like to exemplify are the phonological features that are characteristic for Akan.<br />
Perhaps we can find better examples.<br />
<br />
Another point is that one should really make sure that one has these examples annotated for the phonological features that one discusses in this section of the template. That might not yet be the case. Hm... <br />
It might be necessary to go back into the database and improve somewhat on the annotation.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 12:16, 8 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian, <br />
<br />
I used the keyboard to put in a nasalized ''ẽ''. I hope that was the vowel you were looking for. --[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 12:08, 8 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi again,<br />
<br />
I changed a little the opening text slightly, since I was worried that one highlighted in the old text certain dialects and forgot others.<br />
--[[User:Dorothee Beermann|Dorothee]] 11:38, 5 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Hi Lilian,<br />
<br />
Here something seems to have gone wrong with the representation of the third vowel. :)<br />
<br />
Vowels [o, 3, ), o] are only nasalised in the Fanti dialects.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Justus Turamyomwe|Justus Turamyomwe]] 11:56, 2 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Akan templates - comments ==<br />
<br />
Hello Lilian<br />
<br />
Some comments on the templates you have just started:<br />
<br />
General Akan <br />
<br />
1. I'm surprised you use the expression "Fanti Twi" - Fantes wouldn't like it. Just Fante is more normal - other dialects are called Twi. Also I am surprised that you spell them Asanti and Fanti instead of Asante and Fante, and Akuapem.<br />
<br />
2. Vowel inventory: there is some confusion between phonology and orthography here. The 7 "main vowels" are the orthographic representation, but there are in fact 9 or 10 vowels, depending on the dialect, which divide into 2 sets, one +ATR and one -ATR. In the orthography the mid +ATR and the high +ATR are collapsed, so that the letters e and o represent 2 contrastive vowels each. This should be clarified, because what the template is most interested in is the phonological contrasts. But the note that the orthography doesn't reflect all the contrasts is of course in order.<br />
<br />
3. nasalization - hasn't appeared properly on the high vowels. Are you sure you are using a Unicode 8 font? I strongly suggest Doulos SIL, or Charis SIL. If you type the material in Word and paste it in it should work very well.<br />
<br />
<br />
Asante template<br />
<br />
1. You are using the wrong symbol for the high front -ATR vowel - see comments above.<br />
<br />
2. The sentence on Vowel Harmony is very awkward and needs revision. Tongue Root Position is not a "system" - You need something like "The sequence of vowels within the word is governed by vowel harmony based on tongue root position. The vowels divide into two sets based on this feature..."<br />
<br />
<br />
Keep up the good work.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 11:54, 3 March 2010 (UTC)</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Typological_Features_Template_for_Akan&diff=4271Talk:Typological Features Template for Akan2010-03-03T11:54:16Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>Hi Lilian,<br />
<br />
Here something seems to have gone wrong with the representation of the third vowel. :)<br />
<br />
Vowels [o, 3, ), o] are only nasalised in the Fanti dialects.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Justus Turamyomwe|Justus Turamyomwe]] 11:56, 2 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Akan templates - comments ==<br />
<br />
Hello Lilian<br />
<br />
Some comments on the templates you have just started:<br />
<br />
General Akan <br />
<br />
1. I'm surprised you use the expression "Fanti Twi" - Fantes wouldn't like it. Just Fante is more normal - other dialects are called Twi. Also I am surprised that you spell them Asanti and Fanti instead of Asante and Fante, and Akuapem.<br />
<br />
2. Vowel inventory: there is some confusion between phonology and orthography here. The 7 "main vowels" are the orthographic representation, but there are in fact 9 or 10 vowels, depending on the dialect, which divide into 2 sets, one +ATR and one -ATR. In the orthography the mid +ATR and the high +ATR are collapsed, so that the letters e and o represent 2 contrastive vowels each. This should be clarified, because what the template is most interested in is the phonological contrasts. But the note that the orthography doesn't reflect all the contrasts is of course in order.<br />
<br />
3. nasalization - hasn't appeared properly on the high vowels. Are you sure you are using a Unicode 8 font? I strongly suggest Doulos SIL, or Charis SIL. If you type the material in Word and paste it in it should work very well.<br />
<br />
<br />
Asante template<br />
<br />
1. You are using the wrong symbol for the high front -ATR vowel - see comments above.<br />
<br />
2. The sentence on Vowel Harmony is very awkward and needs revision. Tongue Root Position is not a "system" - You need something like "The sequence of vowels within the word is governed by vowel harmony based on tongue root position. The vowels divide into two sets based on this feature..."<br />
<br />
<br />
Keep up the good work.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu|Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu]] 11:54, 3 March 2010 (UTC)</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Typological_Features_Template_for_Akan&diff=4270Talk:Typological Features Template for Akan2010-03-03T11:40:09Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: /* Akan templates - comments */ new section</p>
<hr />
<div>Hi Lilian,<br />
<br />
Here something seems to have gone wrong with the representation of the third vowel. :)<br />
<br />
Vowels [o, 3, ), o] are only nasalised in the Fanti dialects.<br />
<br />
<br />
--[[User:Justus Turamyomwe|Justus Turamyomwe]] 11:56, 2 March 2010 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Akan templates - comments ==<br />
<br />
Hello Lilian<br />
<br />
Some comments on the templates you have just started:<br />
<br />
General Akan <br />
<br />
1. I'm surprised you use the expression "Fanti Twi" - Fantes wouldn't like it. Just Fante is more normal - other dialects are called Twi. Also I am surprised that you spell them Asanti and Fanti instead of Asante and Fante, and Akuapem.<br />
<br />
2. Vowel inventory: there is some confusion between phonology and orthography here. The 7 "main vowels" are the orthographic representation, but there are in fact 9 or 10 vowels, depending on the dialect, which divide into 2 sets, one +ATR and one -ATR. In the orthography the mid +ATR and the high +ATR are collapsed, so that the letters e and o represent 2 contrastive vowels each. This should be clarified, because what the template is most interested in is the phonological contrasts. But the note that the orthography doesn't reflect all the contrasts is of course in order.<br />
<br />
3. nasalization - hasn't appeared properly on the high vowels. Are you sure you are using a Unicode 8 font? I strongly suggest Doulos SIL, or Charis SIL. If you type the material in Word and paste it in it should work very well.<br />
<br />
<br />
Asante template<br />
<br />
1. You are using the wrong symbol for the high front -ATR vowel - see comments above.<br />
<br />
2. The sentence on Vowel Harmony is very awkward and needs revision. Tongue Root Position is not a "system" - You need something like "The sequence of vowels within the word is governed by vowel harmony based on tongue root position. The vowels divide into two sets based on this feature..."<br />
<br />
<br />
Keep up the good work.<br />
<br />
Mary Esther Dakubu</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:The_Akan_verb_k%C9%94&diff=4269Talk:The Akan verb kɔ2010-03-03T11:29:19Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: Created page with 'I think the '''kɔ''' in the cases where it occurs before the main verb and after the subject should be glossed EGR for egressive, parallelling '''ba''' INGR ingressive. In the …'</p>
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<div>I think the '''kɔ''' in the cases where it occurs before the main verb and after the subject should be glossed EGR for egressive, parallelling '''ba''' INGR ingressive. In the other cases where it follows another verb it is undoubtedly an independent verb in a serial construction. (Mary Esther Dakubu)</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Ga&diff=3992Typological Features Template for Ga2010-01-12T08:34:04Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
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<div>=='''Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu and Yvonne Ollennu'''==<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel inventory<br />
| Ga has seven oral vowels: a i e ɛ u o ɔ and five nasal vowels: ã ĩ ũ ɔ̃ ɛ̃. Double or consecutive copy vowels arise morphophonologically, but otherwise there are no long vowels.<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| Ga does not have ATR harmony. There are assimilation rules for sequences of two vowels. <br />
Sequences of three vowels occur in the orthography but are always reduced in speech to two.<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| Ga Consonant Sounds: Stops p, t, k, kw, kp; b, d, g, gw, gb; Affricates ʧ, ʧw; ʤ, ʤw; Fricatives f, s, ʃ, ʃw; v, z: Nasal continuants m (ɱ), n, ɲ, ŋ, (ŋw), ŋm; Approximant l, Lateral (r). Sounds in () occur allophonically. <br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Tone<br />
|Ga has two tones and downstep. There are numerous lexical minimal pairs, in nouns and especially in verbs. There are also a few cases of high-low falling tone, usually on word-final syllables. They alternate with simple high tone in non-final contexts.<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|Basic syllable types are CV, V and N, each bearing a tone. There are also syllables of shape CL, where L is the liquid or the retroflex, and bears tone. Every lexical stem contains at least one CV syllable or a sequence CL+V. Many grammatical formatives are V or N syllables.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (1)<br />
|Ga is moderately agglutinating in respect of verbs. Simple (non-compound) singular nouns however are monomorphemic.<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (2)<br />
|Ga is generally head-marking at sentence and phrase levels, but case is not grammatically marked and there is no gender or nominal class. On the other hand, Adjectives and the Indefinite Specifier show number agreement with the head noun.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Nominal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields follows a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|syntactic structure<br />
|The linear ordering in the Noun phrase is as follows: Identifier-Possessor-Modifier Noun-Head Noun-Adjective-Numeral-Indefinite Specifier-Determiner-Definite marker-Quantifier-Intensifier. A minimal NP consists of a noun or pronoun. <br />
|-<br />
|nominal modification<br />
|The head of a nominal phrase may be modified by a possessive phrase, by adjectives, numbers and the other elements specified above, and by relative clauses. Many adjectives and the Indefinite specifier (ko) agree in number with the head noun.<br />
|-<br />
|nominal specification<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|possession<br />
|Possession is expressed by simple juxtaposition Possessor-Possessum, except that if the Possessor is plural, the Possessum takes a prefix a-.<br />
|-<br />
|pronominal system<br />
| The independent (Absolute) pronoun form occurs as object and at the beginning of a sentence if focused or topicalized. Subject and possessive pronouns are prefixed to the verb or noun respectively.<br />
The independent pronouns are Singular: 1 mi 2 bo 3 lɛ Plural: 1 wɔ 2 nyɛ 3 amɛ, all with Low tone.<br />
The prefixed pronouns differ from the independent only in the singular: 1 mi-, n- 2 o- 3 e-. As possessive prefixes the first and second singular have high tone and the rest have low. Subject pronouns acquire their tone from the aspect of the verb. There is also an indefinite 3rd person subject prefix a-, used when the actual agent is not specified, where other languages might use a passive.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Verbal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields serve for the description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|word order<br />
|Ga is a strictly SVO language.<br />
|-<br />
|TAM <br />
|Aspect, mood, deixis and polarity are marked on the verb by a combination of prefixes and suffixes. Most aspect and mood prefixes are expressed segmentally after an NP subject but by tone on the preceding syllable when the subject is a pronoun prefix. The Aorist is expressed by downstep between a High tone-final subject and a High tone-initial verb - which means that often it is not expressed and the verb appears in its basic form.<br />
|-<br />
|infinitival forms<br />
|Ga has no true infinitives. However a nominalized form occurs frequently as the complement of certain classes of verb.<br />
|-<br />
|verbal constructions<br />
| Most verbs in Ga may occur intransitively or transitively. Some also occur ditransitively. Serial verb constructions are common, usually limited to two verb phrases. Light verbs occur mainly in sentences expressing properties, and a few (different verbs) typically occur with unified objects.<br />
There is no passive, a general 3rd person agent pronoun being used instead (see note on pronominal system). <br />
|-<br />
|'''Adpositions'''<br />
|Postpositions in Ga may head both subjects and objects of sentences Formally they are identical to possessive phrases. There are very few true prepositions, but a number of verbs may head 'verbid' phrases that are more or less comparable to prepositional phrases. Prepositional or verbid phrases are invariably adjunctival. Postpositional phrases are rarely adjuncts.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Complementation'''<br />
| Complement clauses follow the verb. Depending on the verb, a complementizer may be optional or required. <br />
|-<br />
|'''Special Properties of Ga'''<br />
| Body part expressions are particularly common in this language, with a very wide range of metaphor meanings.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Short Bibliography'''<br />
|Dakubu, M.E. Kropp ed., 2009. ''Ga-English Dictionary with English-Ga Index''. 2nd edition. Accra: Black Mask Publishers.<br />
Dakubu, M.E. Kropp, 2006. ''Parlons Ga, langue et culture d'Accra (Ghana)''. Paris: L'Harmattan <br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ga]]</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Ga&diff=3991Typological Features Template for Ga2010-01-12T08:17:46Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>=='''Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu and Yvonne Ollennu'''==<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel inventory<br />
| Ga has seven oral vowels: a i e ɛ u o ɔ and five nasal vowels: ã ĩ ũ ɔ̃ ɛ̃. Double or consecutive copy vowels arise morphophonologically, but otherwise there are no long vowels.<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| Ga does not have ATR harmony. There are assimilation rules for sequences of two vowels. <br />
Sequences of three vowels occur in the orthography but are always reduced in speech to two.<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| Ga Consonant Sounds: Stops p, t, k, kw, kp; b, d, g, gw, gb; Affricates ʧ, ʧw; ʤ, ʤw; Fricatives f, s, ʃ, ʃw; v, z: Nasal continuants m (ɱ), n, ɲ, ŋ, (ŋw), ŋm; Approximant l, Lateral (r). Sounds in () occur allophonically. <br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Tone<br />
|Ga has two tones and downstep. There are numerous lexical minimal pairs, in nouns and especially in verbs. There are also a few cases of high-low falling tone, usually on word-final syllables. They alternate with simple high tone in non-final contexts.<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|Basic syllable types are CV, V and N, each bearing a tone. There are also syllables of shape CL, where L is the liquid or the retroflex, and bears tone. Every lexical stem contains at least one CV syllable or a sequence CL+V. Many grammatical formatives are V or N syllables.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (1)<br />
|Ga is moderately agglutinating in respect of verbs. Simple (non-compound) singular nouns however are monomorphemic.<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (2)<br />
|Ga is generally head-marking at sentence and phrase levels, but case is not grammatically marked and there is no gender or nominal class. On the other hand, Adjectives and the Indefinite Specifier show number agreement with the head noun.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Nominal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields follows a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|syntactic structure<br />
|The linear ordering in the Noun phrase is as follows: Identifier-Possessor-Modifier Noun-Head Noun-Adjective-Numeral-Indefinite Specifier-Determiner-Definite marker-Quantifier-Intensifier. A minimal NP consists of a noun or pronoun. <br />
|-<br />
|nominal modification<br />
|The head of a nominal phrase may be modified by a possessive phrase, by adjectives, numbers and the other elements specified above, and by relative clauses. Many adjectives and the Indefinite specifier (ko) agree in number with the head noun.<br />
|-<br />
|nominal specification<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|possession<br />
|Possession is expressed by simple juxtaposition Possessor-Possessum, except that if the Possessor is plural, the Possessum takes a prefix a-.<br />
|-<br />
|pronominal system<br />
| The independent (Absolute) pronoun form occurs as object and at the beginning of a sentence if focused or topicalized. Subject and possessive pronouns are prefixed to the verb or noun respectively.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Verbal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields serve for the description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|word order<br />
|Ga is a strictly SVO language.<br />
|-<br />
|TAM <br />
|Aspect, mood, deixis and polarity are marked on the verb by a combination of prefixes and suffixes. Most aspect and mood prefixes are expressed segmentally after an NP subject but by tone on the preceding syllable when the subject is a pronoun prefix. The Aorist is expressed by downstep between a High tone-final subject and a High tone-initial verb - which means that often it is not expressed and the verb appears in its basic form.<br />
|-<br />
|infinitival forms<br />
|Ga has no true infinitives. However a nominalized form occurs frequently as the complement of certain classes of verb.<br />
|-<br />
|verbal constructions<br />
| Most verbs in Ga may occur intransitively or transitively. Some also occur ditransitively. Serial verb constructions are common, usually limited to two verb phrases. Light verbs occur mainly in sentences expressing properties, and a few (different verbs) typically occur with unified objects. <br />
|-<br />
|'''Adpositions'''<br />
|Postpositions in Ga may head both subjects and objects of sentences. Formally they are identical to possessive phrases. There are very few true prepositions, but a number of verbs may head 'verbid' phrases that are more or less comparable to prepositional phrases. Prepositional or verbid phrases are invariably adjunctival. Postpositional phrases are rarely or never adjuncts.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Complementation'''<br />
| Complement clauses follow the verb. Depending on the verb, a complementizer may be optional or required. <br />
|-<br />
|'''Special Properties of [your language]<br />
| In this field you should mention properties of [your language] which did not fit into any of the other categories mentioned in this template<br />
|-<br />
|'''Short Bibliography'''<br />
|Dakubu, M.E. Kropp ed., 2009. ''Ga-English Dictionary with English-Ga Index''. 2nd edition. Accra: Black Mask Publishers.<br />
Dakubu, M.E. Kropp, 2006. ''Parlons Ga, langue et culture d'Accra (Ghana)''. Paris: L'Harmattan <br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ga]]</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=File:HPIM0829a.JPG&diff=3788File:HPIM0829a.JPG2009-12-12T10:49:23Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: Socializing during the Workshop</p>
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<div>Socializing during the Workshop</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=File:HPIM0848a.JPG&diff=3787File:HPIM0848a.JPG2009-12-12T10:44:17Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: A final celebration</p>
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<div>A final celebration</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=File:HPIM0835a.JPG&diff=3786File:HPIM0835a.JPG2009-12-12T10:43:29Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: At lunch after the Workshop</p>
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<div>At lunch after the Workshop</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=File:HPIM0825a.JPG&diff=3785File:HPIM0825a.JPG2009-12-12T10:30:19Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: Another scene from the workshop</p>
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<div>Another scene from the workshop</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=File:HPIM0826a.JPG&diff=3784File:HPIM0826a.JPG2009-12-12T10:28:28Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: workshop participants at UG Staff Resource Centre</p>
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<div>workshop participants at UG Staff Resource Centre</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=File:HPIM0824a.JPG&diff=3783File:HPIM0824a.JPG2009-12-12T10:25:21Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
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<div></div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=The_Legon_Trondheim_Linguistics_Project&diff=3638The Legon Trondheim Linguistics Project2009-11-23T22:28:51Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
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<div>This project is sponsored by NUFU ([http://www.uib.no/fa/intkont/nufu/nufu.htm NUFU]), and has been a cooperation project since 1996 between the University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, and the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim. The name '''The Legon Trondheim Linguistics Project''' is that by which the project is usually referred to, while its official name is '''Computational Lexicography, Typology and Adult Literacy'''. The Ghanaian coordinator has been the Head of the Linguistics Department in office, counting altogether 6 coordinators: Prof. Kwesi Yankah, Dr. Kofi Saah, Prof. Akosua Aynidoho, Prof. Kweku Osam, Dr. Alex Dzameshie, Dr. Paul Agbedor, and (again) Dr. Kofi Saah. Prof. Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu (Language Centre, and Institute of African Studies, Legon) has been the co-coordinator in Legon throughout the whole period, whereas Prof. Lars Hellan, NTNU, has been the Norwegian coordinator throughout the whole period. The original initiative to the project was taken by (then Head of Department) Prof. Lawrence Boadi and Prof. Lars Hellan.<br />
<br />
Publications of the project include:<br />
<br />
1999 ''Ga-English Dictionary with English-Ga Index'' by M.E. Kropp Dakubu. Accra: Black Mask Ltd.<br />
<br />
2002 ''New Directions in Ghanaian Linguistics'' edited by Felix K. Ameka and E. Kweku Osam. Accra: Black Mask Ltd.<br />
<br />
2003 ''Studies in the Languages of the Volta Basin 1'' edited by M.E. Kropp Dakubu and E.K. Osam. Legon: Linguistics Dept.<br />
<br />
2004 ''Studies in the Languages of the Volta Basin 2'' edited by M.E. Kropp Dakubu and E.K. Osam. Legon: Linguistics Dept.<br />
<br />
2004 ''The Trondheim Lectures, an introduction to the structure of Akan: its verbal and multiverbal systems'' by E. Kweku Osam. Legon: Linguistics Dept.<br />
<br />
2005 ''Three Major Syntactic Structures in Akan: interrogatives, complementation and relativisation'' by L.A. Boadi. Accra: Black Mask Ltd.<br />
<br />
2005 ''Studies in the Languages of the Volta Basin 3'' edited by M.E. Kropp Dakubu and E.K. Osam. Legon: Linguistics Dept.<br />
<br />
2006 ''Akan Dictionary, pilot project: 1530 words.'' Legon: Linguistics Dept.<br />
<br />
2007 ''Studies in the Languages of the Volta Basin 4'', 2 Parts. Edited by M.E. Kropp Dakubu, G. Akanlig-Pare, E.K. Osam and K.K. Saah. Legon: Linguistics Dept.<br />
<br />
2007 ''Gurene-English Dictionary with English-Gurene Glossary'' by M.E. Kropp Dakubu, S. Awinkene Atintono and E. Avea Nsoh. Legon: Linguistics Dept.<br />
<br />
2008 ''Studies in the Languages of the Volta Basin 5'' edited by M.E. Kropp Dakubu. Legon: Linguistics Dept.<br />
<br />
2008 ''Aspect and Modality in Kwa Languages'' edited by Felix K. Ameka and M.E. Kropp Dakubu. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
2009 ''Ga-English Dictionary with English-Ga Index.'' 2nd Edition. M.E. Kropp Dakubu. Accra: Black Mask Ltd.<br />
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[[Category:Funded Projects]]</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=The_Legon_Trondheim_Linguistics_Project&diff=3637The Legon Trondheim Linguistics Project2009-11-23T22:17:01Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>This project is sponsored by NUFU ([http://www.uib.no/fa/intkont/nufu/nufu.htm NUFU]), and has been a cooperation project since 1996 between the University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, and the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim. The name '''The Legon Trondheim Linguistics Project''' is that by which the project is usually referred to, while its official name is '''Computational Lexicography, Typology and Adult Literacy'''. The Ghanaian coordinator has been the Head of the Linguistics Department in office, counting altogether 6 coordinators: Prof. Kwesi Yankah, Dr. Kofi Saah, Prof. Akosua Aynidoho, Prof. Kweku Osam, Dr. Alex Dzameshie, Dr. Paul Agbedor, and (again) Dr. Kofi Saah. Prof. Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu (Language Centre, and Institute of African Studies, Legon) has been the co-coordinator in Legon throughout the whole period, whereas Prof. Lars Hellan, NTNU, has been the Norwegian coordinator throughout the whole period. The original initiative to the project was taken by (then Head of Department) Prof. Lawrence Boadi and Prof. Lars Hellan.<br />
<br />
Publications of the project include:<br />
1999 ''Ga-English Dictionary with English-Ga Index'' by M.E. Kropp Dakubu. Accra: Black Mask Ltd.<br />
2004 ''The Trondheim Lectures, an introduction to the structure of Akan: its verbal and multiverbal systems'' by E. Kweku Osam. Legon: Linguistics Dept.<br />
2005 ''Three Major Syntactic Structures in Akan: interrogatives, complementation and relativisation'' by L.A. Boadi. Accra: Black Mask Ltd. <br />
2006 ''Akan Dictionary, pilot project: 1530 words.'' Legon: Linguistics Dept.<br />
2008 ''Aspect and Modality in Kwa Languages'' edited by Felix K. Ameka and M.E. Kropp Dakubu. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
2009 ''Ga-English Dictionary with English-Ga Index.'' 2nd Edition. M.E. Kropp Dakubu. Accra: Black Mask Ltd.<br />
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[[Category:Funded Projects]]</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Toolbox-TypeCraft_Workshop_Legon_2009&diff=3636Toolbox-TypeCraft Workshop Legon 20092009-11-23T21:57:23Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:LegonGroup.jpg|thumb|600px|left|First row from left: Nana Agyeman, Nana Aba Amfo, Yvonne Agbetsoamedo, Dorothee Beermann, Abigail Ayiglo, Mark Dundaa, Zakari Tchagbale.<br />
Middle row from left: Ephraim Nsoh, Helen A. Adongo, Aby Sangaré, Francisca Adjei.<br />
Back row from left: Pavel Mihaylov, Mark Ali, Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu, Hannes Hirzel, Enoc Kra, Joseph Bogny, Kofi Ofori, Mary Steele, Kofi Dorvlo, Regina O. Caesar]]<br />
The final workshop of the Legon-Trondheim NUFU-funded Linguistics Project was hosted by the Linguistics Department at the University of Ghana, Legon. The workshop was held from November 16th to November 19th at the Staff Resource Center, Legon, and was dedicated to the use of digital technology in Lexicography and Language Documentation. Lexicographical tools, in particular Toolbox, were demonstrated by Hr. Hannes Hirzel from GILLBT, Tamale, and the documentation tool TypeCraft was demonstrated by Prof. Dorothee Beermann, NTNU, Trondheim, and Mr. Pavel Mihaylov, OntoText, Sofia.<br />
<br />
All participants produced annotated examples in TypeCraft, and for most of the languages represented Typological Features Templates were compiled.<br />
<br />
The workshop was the 10th in a series of workshops conducted under the auspices of the Legon-Trondheim Linguistics Project, most of them in connection with the colloquia held annually since 1996 and published in the series Studies in the Languages of the Volta Basin. For publications from some of the workshops, see SLAVOB publications.<br />
<br />
A pointer to the Legon-Trondheim Linguistics Project will soon come up at this page.</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Toolbox-TypeCraft_Workshop_Legon_2009&diff=3635Toolbox-TypeCraft Workshop Legon 20092009-11-23T21:47:30Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:LegonGroup.jpg|thumb|600px|left|First row from left: Nana Agyeman, Nana Aba Amfo, Yvonne Agbetsoamedo, Dorothee Beermann, Abigail Ayiglo, Mark Dundaa, Zakari Tchagbale.<br />
Middle row from left: Ephraim Nsoh, Helen A. Adongo, Aby Sangaré, Francisca Adjei.<br />
Back row from left: Pavel Mihaylov, Mark Ali, Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu, Hannes Hirzel, Enoc Kra, Joseph Bogny, Kofi Ofori, Mary Steele, Kofi Dorvlo, Regina O. Caesar]]<br />
The final workshop of the Legon-Trondheim NUFU-funded Linguistics Project was hosted by the Linguistics Department at the University of Ghana, Legon. The workshop was held from November 16th to November 19th at the Staff Resource Center, Legon, and was dedicated to the use of digital technology in Lexicography and Language Documentation. Lexicographical tools, in particular Toolbox, were demonstrated by Hr. Hannes Hirzel from GILLBT, Tamale, and the documentation tool TypeCraft was demonstrated by Prof. Dorothee Beermann, NTNU, Trondheim, and Mr. Pavel Mihaylov, OntoText, Sofia.<br />
<br />
All participants produced annotated examples in TypeCraft, and for most of the languages represented Typological Templates were compiled.<br />
<br />
The workshop was the 10th in a series of workshops conducted under the auspices of the Legon-Trondheim Linguistics Project, most of them in connection with the colloquia held annually since 1996 and published in the series Studies in the Languages of the Volta Basin. For publications from some of the workshops, see SLAVOB publications.<br />
<br />
A pointer to the Legon-Trondheim Linguistics Project will soon come up at this page.</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Languages&diff=3578Category:Languages2009-11-22T14:38:14Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>You have come to the Category: Languages which consists of a list of languages which are associated with a TCwiki article. Some of the articles linked to this category are still under development. Article starting with 'Annotating + [some language name]' directly reflect ongoing work concerned with the annotation of lesser-documented languages.<br />
<br />
If you would like to see the list of languages in the TC database instead, go to the first block on the TC-navigation-bar to the left of your browser window and select the link *Text search*. The search for texts can be done relative to languages. When on the Text search page click on *Languages*, you will see a drop-down menu listing languages. This list reflects the languages in the TC database.</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Languages&diff=3577Category:Languages2009-11-22T14:36:22Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>You have come to the Category: Languages which consists of a list of languages which are associated with a TCwiki article. Some of the articles linked to this category are still under development. Article starting with 'Annotating + [some language name]' directly reflect ongoing work concerned with the annotation of lesser-documented languages.<br />
<br />
If you would like to see the list of languages in the TC database instead, go to the first block on the TC-navigation-bar to the left of your browser window and select the link *Text search*. The search for texts can be done relative to languages. When on the Text search page click on *Languages*, you will see a drop-down menu listing languages. This list reflects the languages in the TC database.<br />
Ga<br />
This article refers to features peculiar to Ga as annotated in TypeCraft texts by M.E.K. Dakubu</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Ga&diff=3451Typological Features Template for Ga2009-11-19T12:47:39Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
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<div>=='''Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu and Yvonne Ollennu'''==<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel inventory<br />
| Ga has seven oral vowels: a i e ɛ u o ɔ and five nasal vowels: ã ĩ ũ ɔ̃ ɛ̃. Double or consecutive copy vowels arise morphophonologically, but otherwise there are no long vowels.<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| Ga does not have ATR harmony. There are assimilation rules for sequences of two vowels. <br />
Sequences of three vowels occur in the orthography but are always reduced in speech to two.<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| Ga Consonant Sounds: Stops p, t, k, kw, kp; b, d, g, gw, gb; Affricates ʧ, ʧw; ʤ, ʤw; Fricatives f, s, ʃ, ʃw; v, z: Nasal continuants m (ɱ), n, ɲ, ŋ, (ŋw), ŋm; Approximant l, Lateral (r). Sounds in () occur allophonically. <br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Tone<br />
|Ga has two tones and downstep. There are numerous lexical minimal pairs, in nouns and especially in verbs. There are also a few cases of high-low falling tone, usually on word-final syllables. They alternate with simple high tone in non-final contexts.<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|Basic syllable types are CV, V and N, each bearing a tone. There are also syllables of shape CL, where L is the liquid or the retroflex, and bears tone. Every lexical stem contains at least one CV syllable or a sequence CL+V. Many grammatical formatives are V or N syllables.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (1)<br />
|Ga is moderately agglutinating in respect of verbs. Simple (non-compound) singular nouns however are monomorphemic.<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (2)<br />
|Ga is generally head-marking at sentence and phrase levels, but case is not grammatically marked and there is no gender or nominal class. On the other hand, Adjectives and the Indefinite Specifier show number agreement with the head noun.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Nominal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields follows a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|syntactic structure<br />
|The linear ordering in the Noun phrase is as follows: Identifier-Possessor-Modifier Noun-Head Noun-Adjective-Numeral-Indefinite Specifier-Determiner-Definite marker-Quantifier-Intensifier. A minimal NP consists of a noun or pronoun. <br />
|-<br />
|nominal modification<br />
|The head of a nominal phrase may be modified by a possessive phrase, by adjectives, numbers and the other elements specified above, and by relative clauses. Many adjectives and the Indefinite specifier (ko) agree in number with the head noun.<br />
|-<br />
|nominal specification<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|possession<br />
|Possession is expressed by simple juxtaposition Possessor-Possessum, except that if the Possessor is plural, the Possessum takes a prefix a-.<br />
|-<br />
|pronominal system<br />
| The independent (Absolute) pronoun form occurs as object and at the beginning of a sentence if focused or topicalized. Subject and possessive pronouns are prefixed to the verb or noun respectively.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Verbal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields serve for the description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|word order<br />
|Ga is a strictly SVO language.<br />
|-<br />
|TAM <br />
|Aspect, mood, deixis and polarity are marked on the verb by a combination of prefixes and suffixes. Most aspect and mood prefixes are expressed segmentally after an NP subject but by tone on the preceding syllable when the subject is a pronoun prefix. The Aorist is expressed by downstep between a High tone-final subject and a High tone-initial verb - which means that often it is not expressed and the verb appears in its basic form.<br />
|-<br />
|infinitival forms<br />
|Ga has no true infinitives. However a nominalized form occurs frequently as the complement of certain classes of verb.<br />
|-<br />
|verbal constructions<br />
| Most verbs in Ga may occur intransitively or transitively. Some also occur ditransitively. Serial verb constructions are common, usually limited to two verb phrases. Light verbs occur mainly in sentences expressing properties, and a few (different verbs) typically occur with unified objects. <br />
|-<br />
|'''Adpositions'''<br />
|Postpositions in Ga may head both subjects and objects of sentences. Formally they are identical to possessive phrases. There are very few true prepositions, but a number of verbs may head 'verbid' phrases that are more or less comparable to prepositional phrases. Prepositional or verbid phrases are invariably adjunctival. Postpositional phrases are rarely or never adjuncts.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Complementation'''<br />
| Complement clauses follow the verb. Depending on the verb, a complementizer may be optional or required. <br />
|-<br />
|'''Special Properties of [your language]<br />
| In this field you should mention properties of [your language] which did not fit into any of the other categories mentioned in this template<br />
|-<br />
|'''Short Bibliography'''<br />
|Dakubu, M.E. Kropp ed., 2009. ''Ga-English Dictionary with English-Ga Index''. 2nd edition. Accra: Black Mask Publishers.<br />
<br />
|}</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Ga&diff=3449Typological Features Template for Ga2009-11-19T12:40:35Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>=='''Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu and Yvonne Ollennu'''==<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel inventory<br />
| Ga has seven oral vowels: a i e ɛ u o ɔ and five nasal vowels: ã ĩ ũ ɔ̃ ɛ̃. Double or consecutive copy vowels arise morphophonologically, but otherwise there are no long vowels.<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| Ga does not have ATR harmony. There are assimilation rules for sequences of two vowels. <br />
Sequences of three vowels occur in the orthography but are always reduced in speech to two.<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| Ga Consonant Sounds: Stops p, t, k, kw, kp; b, d, g, gw, gb; Affricates ʧ, ʧw; ʤ, ʤw; Fricatives f, s, ʃ, ʃw; v, z: Nasal continuants m (ɱ), n, ɲ, ŋ, (ŋw), ŋm; Approximant l, Lateral (r). Sounds in () occur allophonically. <br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Tone<br />
|Ga has two tones and downstep. There are numerous lexical minimal pairs, in nouns and especially in verbs. There are also a few cases of high-low falling tone, usually on word-final syllables. They alternate with simple high tone in non-final contexts.<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|Basic syllable types are CV, V and N, each bearing a tone. There are also syllables of shape CL, where L is the liquid or the retroflex, and bears tone. Every lexical stem contains at least one CV syllable or a sequence CL+V. Many grammatical formatives are V or N syllables.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (1)<br />
|Ga is moderately agglutinating in respect of verbs. Simple (non-compound) singular nouns however are monomorphemic.<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (2)<br />
|Ga is generally head-marking at sentence and phrase levels, but case is not grammatically marked and there is no gender or nominal class. On the other hand, Adjectives and the Indefinite Specifier show number agreement with the head noun.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Nominal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields follows a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|syntactic structure<br />
|The linear ordering in the Noun phrase is as follows: Identifier-Possessor-Modifier Noun-Head Noun-Adjective-Numeral-Indefinite Specifier-Determiner-Definite marker-Quantifier-Intensifier. A minimal NP consists of a noun or pronoun. <br />
|-<br />
|nominal modification<br />
|The head of a nominal phrase may be modified by a possessive phrase, by adjectives, numbers and the other elements specified above, and by relative clauses. Many adjectives and the Indefinite specifier (ko) agree in number with the head noun.<br />
|-<br />
|nominal specification<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|possession<br />
|Possession is expressed by simple juxtaposition Possessor-Possessum, except that if the Possessor is plural, the Possessum takes a prefix a-.<br />
|-<br />
|pronominal system<br />
| The independent (Absolute) pronoun form occurs as object and at the beginning of a sentence if focused or topicalized. Subject and possessive pronouns are prefixed to the verb or noun respectively.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Verbal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields serve for the description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|word order<br />
|Ga is a strictly SVO language.<br />
|-<br />
|TAM <br />
|Aspect, mood, deixis and polarity are marked on the verb by a combination of prefixes and suffixes. Most aspect and mood prefixes are expressed segmentally after an NP subject but by tone on the preceding syllable when the subject is a pronoun prefix. The Aorist is expressed by downstep between a High tone-final subject and a High tone-initial verb - which means that often it is not expressed and the verb appears in its basic form.<br />
|-<br />
|infinitival forms<br />
|Ga has no true infinitives. However a nominalized form occurs frequently as the complement of certain classes of verb.<br />
|-<br />
|verbal constructions<br />
| Most verbs in Ga may occur intransitively or transitively. Some also occur ditransitively. Serial verb constructions are common, usually limited to two verb phrases. Light verbs occur mainly in sentences expressing properties, and a few (different verbs) typically occur with unified objects. <br />
|-<br />
|'''Adpositions'''<br />
|Postpositions in Ga may head both subjects and objects of sentences. Formally they are identical to possessive phrases. There are very few true prepositions, but a number of verbs may head 'verbid' phrases that are more or less comparable to prepositional phrases. Prepositional or verbid phrases are invariably adjunctival. Postpositional phrases are rarely or never adjuncts.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Complementation'''<br />
| Complement clauses follow the verb. Depending on the verb, a complementizer may be optional or required. <br />
|-<br />
|'''Special Properties of [your language]<br />
| In this field you should mention properties of [your language] which did not fit into any of the other categories mentioned in this template<br />
<br />
|}</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Ntrapo&diff=3426Typological Features Template for Ntrapo2009-11-19T12:15:21Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>===Mary Esther Dakubu===<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description''' '''This page will be further developed mid-2010'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel inventory<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| In this field you describe rule based assimilations involving vowels in [your language]<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| In this field you describe the consonants of [your language] <br />
|-<br />
|Tone<br />
|There appear to be two tones, plus a high-low falling tone on some word-final syllables.<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|Syllable types include CV, V and N. V and N syllables occur only as grammatical markers.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''<br />
|In the following fields you describe some of the basic morpho-syntactic parameters of [your language]<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (1)<br />
|This is a moderately agglutinative language, with nominal prefixes marking singular and plural<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (2)<br />
|Linguists have distinguished between head- and dependent-marking languages. Semitic languages are head marking languages; it is the head of the noun phrases that needs to have a special form when followed by a dependent noun; in the Germanic languages it is the head of the verb phrase that expresses person-number features of its subject. Grammatical dependencies on the other hand are in some of the Germanic languages expressed on the dependent noun phrases in form of case. [Your language] might be both, head- and dependent-marking, depending on the category of speech and or the type of feature expressed. This is what you can describe in this field.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Nominal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields follows a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|syntactic structure<br />
|In this field you describe the linear order of elements in the noun phrase <br />
|-<br />
|nominal modification<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic types of nominal modification (adjectives, relative clauses, adpositions...)<br />
|-<br />
|nominal specification<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic types of specification. Does [your language] have determiners, demonstratives (deixis), numerals, quantifiers. Are there affixes expressing reference, deixis. Are there nouns or other elements expression a portion of a noun that the co-occur with?<br />
|-<br />
|possession<br />
|In this field you describe how possession is expressed (for example, syntactically or by use of prepositions, through juxtaposition or morphologically) Does [your language] feature possessive pronouns?<br />
|-<br />
|pronominal system<br />
| In this field you indicate if [your language] has free pronoun forms? Are pronouns marked for their grammatical function (object versus subject pronouns)? Does your language have bound pronouns (affixes) or pronoun doubling? Are reflexives expressed by pronouns?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Verbal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields serve for the description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|word order<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic word order of your language (SOV, SOV ...)<br />
|-<br />
|TAM <br />
|In this field you indicate which tense and/or aspects are morphologically or tonally marked; does [your language] make use of periphrastic tense or aspect constructions?<br />
|-<br />
|infinitival forms<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language] makes use of an infinitive marker? How many infinitival forms does your language have?<br />
|-<br />
|verbal constructions<br />
| In this field you indicate if [your language] has ditransitive constructions, serial verb constructions or complex verb forms composed of several verbs. Does your language have so called light verbs, perhaps only used to indicate a certain tense or aspect?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Adpositions'''<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language[ makes use of prepositions or postpositions. Does your language have spatial nouns? Does your language use adpositions or particles to indicate grammatical relations between the verb and a nominal argument?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Complementation'''<br />
| In this field you describe complementation strategies. Does [your language] make use of complementizers?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Special Properties of [your language]<br />
| This North Guang language is almost if not entirely extinct and has no ISO or Ethnologue number. Information here is based on a short wordlist collected at Kpalangase (Northern Region, Ghana) in 2007.<br />
<br />
|}</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Ntrapo&diff=3369Typological Features Template for Ntrapo2009-11-19T09:20:32Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|In the following fields you describe the phonological inventory of [your language]<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel inventory<br />
| In this field you describe the vowels of [your language]<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| In this field you describe rule based assimilations involving vowels in [your language]<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| In this field you describe the consonants of [your language] <br />
|-<br />
|Tone<br />
|There appear to be two tones, plus a high-low falling tone on some word-final syllables.<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|Syllable types include CV, V and N. V and N syllables occur only as grammatical markers.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''<br />
|In the following fields you describe some of the basic morpho-syntactic parameters of [your language]<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (1)<br />
|This is a moderately agglutinative language, with nominal prefixes marking singular and plural<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (2)<br />
|Linguists have distinguished between head- and dependent-marking languages. Semitic languages are head marking languages; it is the head of the noun phrases that needs to have a special form when followed by a dependent noun; in the Germanic languages it is the head of the verb phrase that expresses person-number features of its subject. Grammatical dependencies on the other hand are in some of the Germanic languages expressed on the dependent noun phrases in form of case. [Your language] might be both, head- and dependent-marking, depending on the category of speech and or the type of feature expressed. This is what you can describe in this field.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Nominal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields follows a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|syntactic structure<br />
|In this field you describe the linear order of elements in the noun phrase <br />
|-<br />
|nominal modification<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic types of nominal modification (adjectives, relative clauses, adpositions...)<br />
|-<br />
|nominal specification<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic types of specification. Does [your language] have determiners, demonstratives (deixis), numerals, quantifiers. Are there affixes expressing reference, deixis. Are there nouns or other elements expression a portion of a noun that the co-occur with?<br />
|-<br />
|possession<br />
|In this field you describe how possession is expressed (for example, syntactically or by use of prepositions, through juxtaposition or morphologically) Does [your language] feature possessive pronouns?<br />
|-<br />
|pronominal system<br />
| In this field you indicate if [your language] has free pronoun forms? Are pronouns marked for their grammatical function (object versus subject pronouns)? Does your language have bound pronouns (affixes) or pronoun doubling? Are reflexives expressed by pronouns?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Verbal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields serve for the description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|word order<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic word order of your language (SOV, SOV ...)<br />
|-<br />
|TAM <br />
|In this field you indicate which tense and/or aspects are morphologically or tonally marked; does [your language] make use of periphrastic tense or aspect constructions?<br />
|-<br />
|infinitival forms<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language] makes use of an infinitive marker? How many infinitival forms does your language have?<br />
|-<br />
|verbal constructions<br />
| In this field you indicate if [your language] has ditransitive constructions, serial verb constructions or complex verb forms composed of several verbs. Does your language have so called light verbs, perhaps only used to indicate a certain tense or aspect?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Adpositions'''<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language[ makes use of prepositions or postpositions. Does your language have spatial nouns? Does your language use adpositions or particles to indicate grammatical relations between the verb and a nominal argument?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Complementation'''<br />
| In this field you describe complementation strategies. Does [your language] make use of complementizers?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Special Properties of [your language]<br />
| This North Guang language is almost if not entirely extinct and has no ISO or Ethnologue number. Information here is based on a short wordlist collected at Kpalangase (Northern Region, Ghana) in 2007.<br />
<br />
|}</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Ntrapo&diff=3368Typological Features Template for Ntrapo2009-11-19T09:11:01Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|In the following fields you describe the phonological inventory of [your language]<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel inventory<br />
| In this field you describe the vowels of [your language]<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| In this field you describe rule based assimilations involving vowels in [your language]<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| In this field you describe the consonants of [your language] <br />
|-<br />
|Tone<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language] is a tone language and which tones are used; does [your language] have lexical tone?<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic syllable structures of [your language].<br />
|-<br />
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''<br />
|In the following fields you describe some of the basic morpho-syntactic parameters of [your language]<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (1)<br />
|[Your language] could be an isolating language (not (or nearly not) making use of morphology, agglutinative, such as the Bantu languages of Africa, or synthetic, such as the Saami languages of Scandinavia, or even polysynthetic such as Greenlandic. In this field you classify [your language] according to these parameters if possible.<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (2)<br />
|Linguists have distinguished between head- and dependent-marking languages. Semitic languages are head marking languages; it is the head of the noun phrases that needs to have a special form when followed by a dependent noun; in the Germanic languages it is the head of the verb phrase that expresses person-number features of its subject. Grammatical dependencies on the other hand are in some of the Germanic languages expressed on the dependent noun phrases in form of case. [Your language] might be both, head- and dependent-marking, depending on the category of speech and or the type of feature expressed. This is what you can describe in this field.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Nominal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields follows a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|syntactic structure<br />
|In this field you describe the linear order of elements in the noun phrase <br />
|-<br />
|nominal modification<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic types of nominal modification (adjectives, relative clauses, adpositions...)<br />
|-<br />
|nominal specification<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic types of specification. Does [your language] have determiners, demonstratives (deixis), numerals, quantifiers. Are there affixes expressing reference, deixis. Are there nouns or other elements expression a portion of a noun that the co-occur with?<br />
|-<br />
|possession<br />
|In this field you describe how possession is expressed (for example, syntactically or by use of prepositions, through juxtaposition or morphologically) Does [your language] feature possessive pronouns?<br />
|-<br />
|pronominal system<br />
| In this field you indicate if [your language] has free pronoun forms? Are pronouns marked for their grammatical function (object versus subject pronouns)? Does your language have bound pronouns (affixes) or pronoun doubling? Are reflexives expressed by pronouns?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Verbal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields serve for the description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|word order<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic word order of your language (SOV, SOV ...)<br />
|-<br />
|TAM <br />
|In this field you indicate which tense and/or aspects are morphologically or tonally marked; does [your language] make use of periphrastic tense or aspect constructions?<br />
|-<br />
|infinitival forms<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language] makes use of an infinitive marker? How many infinitival forms does your language have?<br />
|-<br />
|verbal constructions<br />
| In this field you indicate if [your language] has ditransitive constructions, serial verb constructions or complex verb forms composed of several verbs. Does your language have so called light verbs, perhaps only used to indicate a certain tense or aspect?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Adpositions'''<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language[ makes use of prepositions or postpositions. Does your language have spatial nouns? Does your language use adpositions or particles to indicate grammatical relations between the verb and a nominal argument?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Complementation'''<br />
| In this field you describe complementation strategies. Does [your language] make use of complementizers?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Special Properties of [your language]<br />
| This North Guang language is almost if not entirely extinct and has no ISO or Ethnologue number.<br />
<br />
|}</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Ga&diff=3367Typological Features Template for Ga2009-11-19T09:08:13Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel inventory<br />
| Ga has seven oral vowels: a i e ɛ u o ɔ and five nasal vowels: ã ĩ ũ ɔ̃ ɛ̃. Double or consecutive copy vowels arise morphophonologically, but otherwise there are no long vowels.<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| Ga does not have ATR harmony. There are assimilation rules for sequences of two vowels. <br />
Sequences of three vowels occur in the orthography but are always reduced in speech to two.<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| Ga Consonant Sounds: Stops p, t, k, kw, kp; b, d, g, gw, gb; Affricates ʧ, ʧw; ʤ, ʤw; Fricatives f, s, ʃ, ʃw; v, z: Nasal continuants m (ɱ), n, ɲ, ŋ, (ŋw), ŋm; Approximant l, Lateral (r). Sounds in () occur allophonically. <br />
<br />
|-<br />
|Tone<br />
|Ga has two tones and downstep. There are numerous lexical minimal pairs, in nouns and especially in verbs. There are also a few cases of high-low falling tone, usually on word-final syllables. They alternate with simple high tone in non-final contexts.<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|Syllable types are CV, V and N, each bearing a tone. Every lexical stem contains at least one CV syllable. Many grammatical formatives are V or N syllables.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (1)<br />
|Ga is moderately agglutinating in respect of verbs. Simple (non-compound) singular nouns however are monomorphemic.<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (2)<br />
|Ga is generally head-marking at sentence and phrase levels, but case is not grammatically marked and there is no gender or nominal class. On the other hand, Adjectives and the Indefinite Specifier show number agreement with the head noun.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Nominal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields follows a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|syntactic structure<br />
|The linear ordering in the Noun phrase is as follows: Determiner-Possessor-Modifier Noun-Head Noun-Adjective-Numeral-Indefinite Specifier-Deictic specifier-Definite marker-Quantifier-Intensifier. A minimal NP consists of a noun or pronoun. <br />
|-<br />
|nominal modification<br />
|The head of a nominal phrase may be modified by a possessive phrase, by adjectives, numbers and the other elements specified above, and by relative clauses.<br />
|-<br />
|nominal specification<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic types of specification. Does [your language] have determiners, demonstratives (deixis), numerals, quantifiers. Are there affixes expressing reference, deixis. Are there nouns or other elements expression a portion of a noun that the co-occur with?<br />
|-<br />
|possession<br />
|Possession is expressed by simple juxtaposition Possessor-Possessum, except that if the Possessor is plural, the Possessum takes a prefix a-.<br />
|-<br />
|pronominal system<br />
| The independent (Absolute) pronoun form occurs as object and at the beginning of a sentence if focused or topicalized. Subject and possessive pronouns are prefixed to the verb or noun respectively.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Verbal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields serve for the description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|word order<br />
|Ga is a strictly SVO language.<br />
|-<br />
|TAM <br />
|Aspect, mood, deixis and polarity are marked on the verb by a combination of prefixes and suffixes. Most aspect and mood prefixes are expressed segmentally after an NP subject but by tone on the preceding syllable when the subject is a pronoun prefix. The Aorist is expressed by downstep between a High tone-final subject and a High tone-initial verb - which means that often it is not expressed and the verb appears in its basic form.<br />
|-<br />
|infinitival forms<br />
|Ga has no true infinitives. However a nominalized form occurs frequently as the complement of certain classes of verb.<br />
|-<br />
|verbal constructions<br />
| Most verbs in Ga may occur intransitively or transitively. Some also occur ditransitively. Serial verb constructions are common, usually limited to two verb phrases. Light verbs occur mainly in sentences expressing properties, and a few (different verbs) typically occur with unified objects. <br />
|-<br />
|'''Adpositions'''<br />
|Postpositions in Ga may head both subjects and objects of sentences. Formally they are identical to possessive phrases. There are very few true prepositions, but a number of verbs may head 'verbid' phrases that are more or less comparable to prepositional phrases. Prepositional or verbid phrases are invariably adjunctival. Postpositional phrases are rarely or never adjuncts.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Complementation'''<br />
| Complement clauses follow the verb. Depending on the verb, a complementizer may be optional or required. <br />
|-<br />
|'''Special Properties of [your language]<br />
| In this field you should mention properties of [your language] which did not fit into any of the other categories mentioned in this template<br />
<br />
|}</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=User:Mary_Esther_Kropp_Dakubu&diff=3290User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu2009-11-18T14:30:33Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Media:Abstract.pdf]]<br />
[[Media:Grammatical Feature Sequencing in the Ga Extended Verb Complex.doc]]<br />
<br />
Construction descriptions in my texts using Construction Label conventions have been entered and revised at various times, and details of the abbreviations and conventions used may have changed.</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=User:Mary_Esther_Kropp_Dakubu&diff=3289User:Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu2009-11-18T14:30:10Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Media:Abstract.pdf]]<br />
[[Media:Grammatical Feature Sequencing in the Ga Extended Verb Complex.doc]]<br />
Construction descriptions in my texts using Construction Label conventions have been entered and revised at various times, and details of the abbreviations and conventions used may have changed.</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Ga&diff=3272Typological Features Template for Ga2009-11-18T12:50:37Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel inventory<br />
| Ga has seven oral vowels: a i e ɛ u o ɔ and five nasal vowels: ã ĩ ũ ɔ̃ ɛ̃. Double or consecutive copy vowels arise morphophonologically, but otherwise there are no long vowels.<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| Ga does not have ATR harmony. There are assimilation rules for sequences of two vowels. <br />
Sequences of three vowels occur in the orthography but are always reduced in speech to two.<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| In this field you describe the consonants of [your language] <br />
|-<br />
|Tone<br />
|Ga has two tones and downstep. There are numerous lexical minimal pairs, in nouns and especially in verbs. There are also a few cases of high-low falling tone, usually on word-final syllables. They alternate with simple high tone in non-final contexts.<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|Syllable types are CV, V and N, each bearing a tone. Every lexical stem contains at least one CV syllable. Many grammatical formatives are V or N syllables.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (1)<br />
|Ga is moderately agglutinating in respect of verbs. Simple (non-compound) singular nouns however are monomorphemic.<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (2)<br />
|Ga is generally head-marking at sentence and phrase levels, but case is not grammatically marked and there is no gender or nominal class. On the other hand, Adjectives and the Indefinite Specifier show number agreement with the head noun.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Nominal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields follows a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|syntactic structure<br />
|The linear ordering in the Noun phrase is as follows: Determiner-Possessor-Modifier Noun-Head Noun-Adjective-Numeral-Indefinite Specifier-Deictic specifier-Definite marker-Quantifier-Intensifier. A minimal NP consists of a noun or pronoun. <br />
|-<br />
|nominal modification<br />
|The head of a nominal phrase may be modified by a possessive phrase, by adjectives, numbers and the other elements specified above, and by relative clauses.<br />
|-<br />
|nominal specification<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic types of specification. Does [your language] have determiners, demonstratives (deixis), numerals, quantifiers. Are there affixes expressing reference, deixis. Are there nouns or other elements expression a portion of a noun that the co-occur with?<br />
|-<br />
|possession<br />
|Possession is expressed by simple juxtaposition Possessor-Possessum, except that if the Possessor is plural, the Possessum takes a prefix a-.<br />
|-<br />
|pronominal system<br />
| The independent (Absolute) pronoun form occurs as object and at the beginning of a sentence if focused or topicalized. Subject and possessive pronouns are prefixed to the verb or noun respectively.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Verbal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields serve for the description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|word order<br />
|Ga is a strictly SVO language.<br />
|-<br />
|TAM <br />
|Aspect, mood, deixis and polarity are marked on the verb by a combination of prefixes and suffixes. Most aspect and mood prefixes are expressed segmentally after an NP subject but by tone on the preceding syllable when the subject is a pronoun prefix. The Aorist is expressed by downstep between a High tone-final subject and a High tone-initial verb - which means that often it is not expressed and the verb appears in its basic form.<br />
|-<br />
|infinitival forms<br />
|Ga has no true infinitives. However a nominalized form occurs frequently as the complement of certain classes of verb.<br />
|-<br />
|verbal constructions<br />
| Most verbs in Ga may occur intransitively or transitively. Some also occur ditransitively. Serial verb constructions are common, usually limited to two verb phrases. Light verbs occur mainly in sentences expressing properties, and a few (different verbs) typically occur with unified objects. <br />
|-<br />
|'''Adpositions'''<br />
|Postpositions in Ga may head both subjects and objects of sentences. Formally they are identical to possessive phrases. There are very few true prepositions, but a number of verbs may head 'verbid' phrases that are more or less comparable to prepositional phrases. Prepositional or verbid phrases are invariably adjunctival. Postpositional phrases are rarely or never adjuncts.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Complementation'''<br />
| Complement clauses follow the verb. Depending on the verb, a complementizer may be optional or required. <br />
|-<br />
|'''Special Properties of [your language]<br />
| In this field you should mention properties of [your language] which did not fit into any of the other categories mentioned in this template<br />
<br />
|}</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Ga&diff=3268Typological Features Template for Ga2009-11-18T12:43:21Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel inventory<br />
| Ga has seven oral vowels: a i e ɛ u o ɔ and five nasal vowels: ã ĩ ũ ɔ̃ ɛ̃. Double or consecutive copy vowels arise morphophonologically, but otherwise there are no long vowels.<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| Ga does not have ATR harmony. There are assimilation rules for sequences of two vowels. <br />
Sequences of three vowels occur in the orthography but are always reduced in speech to two.<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| In this field you describe the consonants of [your language] <br />
|-<br />
|Tone<br />
|Ga has two tones and downstep. There are numerous lexical minimal pairs, in nouns and especially in verbs. There are also a few cases of high-low falling tone, usually on word-final syllables. They alternate with simple high tone in non-final contexts.<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|Syllable types are CV, V and N, each bearing a tone. Every lexical stem contains at least one CV syllable. Many grammatical formatives are V or N syllables.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (1)<br />
|Ga is moderately agglutinating in respect of verbs. Simple (non-compound) singular nouns however are monomorphemic.<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (2)<br />
|Ga is generally head-marking at sentence and phrase levels, but case is not grammatically marked and there is no gender or nominal class. On the other hand, Adjectives and the Indefinite Specifier show number agreement with the head noun.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Nominal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields follows a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|syntactic structure<br />
|The linear ordering in the Noun phrase is as follows: Determiner-Possessor-Modifier Noun-Head Noun-Adjective-Numeral-Indefinite Specifier-Deictic specifier-Definite marker-Quantifier-Intensifier. A minimal NP consists of a noun or pronoun. <br />
|-<br />
|nominal modification<br />
|The head of a nominal phrase may be modified by a possessive phrase, by adjectives, numbers and the other elements specified above, and by relative clauses.<br />
|-<br />
|nominal specification<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic types of specification. Does [your language] have determiners, demonstratives (deixis), numerals, quantifiers. Are there affixes expressing reference, deixis. Are there nouns or other elements expression a portion of a noun that the co-occur with?<br />
|-<br />
|possession<br />
|Possession is expressed by simple juxtaposition Possessor-Possessum, except that if the Possessor is plural, the Possessum takes a prefix a-.<br />
|-<br />
|pronominal system<br />
| The independent (Absolute) pronoun form occurs as object and at the beginning of a sentence if focused or topicalized. Subject and possessive pronouns are prefixed to the verb or noun respectively.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Verbal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields serve for the description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|word order<br />
|Ga is a strictly SVO language.<br />
|-<br />
|TAM <br />
|Aspect, mood, deixis and polarity are marked on the verb by a combination of prefixes and suffixes. Most aspect and mood prefixes are expressed segmentally after an NP subject but by tone on the preceding syllable when the subject is a pronoun prefix. The Aorist is expressed by downstep between a High tone-final subject and a High tone-initial verb - which means that often it is not expressed and the verb appears in its basic form.<br />
|-<br />
|infinitival forms<br />
|Ga has no true infinitives. However a nominalized form occurs frequently as the complement of certain classes of verb.<br />
|-<br />
|verbal constructions<br />
| Mostn verbs in Ga may occur intransitively or transitively. Some also occur ditransitively. Serial verb constructions are common, usually limited to two verb phrases. Light verbs occur mainly in sentences expressing properties, and a few (different verbs) typically occur with unified objects. <br />
|-<br />
|'''Adpositions'''<br />
|Postpositions in Ga may head both subjects and objects of sentences. Formally they are identical to possessive phrases. There are very few true prepositions, but a number of verbs may head 'verbid' phrases that are more or less comparable to prepositional phrases. Prepositional or verbid phrases are invariably adjunctival. Postpositional phrases are rarely or never adjuncts.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Complementation'''<br />
| In this field you describe complementation strategies. Does [your language] make use of complementizers?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Special Properties of [your language]<br />
| In this field you should mention properties of [your language] which did not fit into any of the other categories mentioned in this template<br />
<br />
|}</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubuhttps://typecraft.org/w/index.php?title=Typological_Features_Template_for_Ga&diff=3256Typological Features Template for Ga2009-11-18T12:30:32Z<p>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu: </p>
<hr />
<div>{| border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|width="20%"|'''Feature'''<br />
|width="80%"|'''Description'''<br />
|-valign="top"<br />
|'''Phonological Features'''<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel inventory<br />
| Ga has seven oral vowels: a i e ɛ u o ɔ and five nasal vowels: ã ĩ ũ ɔ̃ ɛ̃. Double or consecutive copy vowels arise morphophonologically, but otherwise there are no long vowels.<br />
|-<br />
|Vowel harmony<br />
| Ga does not have ATR harmony. There are assimilation rules for sequences of two vowels. <br />
Sequences of three vowels occur in the orthography but are always reduced in speech to two.<br />
|-<br />
|Consonant inventory<br />
| In this field you describe the consonants of [your language] <br />
|-<br />
|Tone<br />
|Ga has two tones and downstep. There are numerous lexical minimal pairs, in nouns and especially in verbs. There are also a few cases of high-low falling tone, usually on word-final syllables. They alternate with simple high tone in non-final contexts.<br />
|-<br />
|Syllable Structure<br />
|Syllable types are CV, V and N, each bearing a tone. Every lexical stem contains at least one CV syllable. Many grammatical formatives are V or N syllables.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Morpho-syntactic Features'''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (1)<br />
|Ga is moderately agglutinating in respect of verbs. Simple (noun compound) singular nouns however are monomorphemic.<br />
|-<br />
|morphological classification (2)<br />
|Ga is generally head-marking at sentence and phrase levels, but case is not grammatically marked and there is no gender or nominal class. On the other hand, Adjectives and the Indefinite Specifier show number agreement with the head noun.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Nominal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields follows a description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of nominal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|syntactic structure<br />
|The linear ordering in the Noun phrase is as follows: Determiner-Possessor-Modifier Noun-Head Noun-Adjective-Numeral-Indefinite Specifier-Deictic specifier-Definite marker-Quantifier-Intensifier. A minimal NP consists of a noun or pronoun. <br />
|-<br />
|nominal modification<br />
|The head of a nominal phrase may be modified by a possessive phrase, by adjectives, numbers and the other elements specified above, and by relative clauses.<br />
|-<br />
|nominal specification<br />
|In this field you indicate the basic types of specification. Does [your language] have determiners, demonstratives (deixis), numerals, quantifiers. Are there affixes expressing reference, deixis. Are there nouns or other elements expression a portion of a noun that the co-occur with?<br />
|-<br />
|possession<br />
|Possession is expressed by simple juxtaposition Possessor-Possessum, except that if the Possessor is plural, the Possessum takes a prefix a-.<br />
|-<br />
|pronominal system<br />
| The independent (Absolute) pronoun form occurs as object and at the beginning of a sentence if focused or topicalized. Subject and possessive pronouns are prefixed to the verb or noun respectively.<br />
|-<br />
|'''Verbal Phrases'''<br />
|In the following fields serve for the description of some of the basic morpho-syntactic properties of verbal constituents<br />
|-<br />
|word order<br />
|Ga is a strictly SVO language.<br />
|-<br />
|TAM <br />
|Aspect, mood, deixis and polarity are marked on the verb by a combination of prefixes and suffixes. Most aspect and mood prefixes are expressed segmentally after an NP subject but by tone on the preceding syllable when the subject is a pronoun prefix. The Aorist is expressed by downstep between a High tone-final subject and a Hight tone-initial verb - which means that often it is not expressed.<br />
|-<br />
|infinitival forms<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language] makes use of an infinitive marker? How many infinitival forms does your language have?<br />
|-<br />
|verbal constructions<br />
| In this field you indicate if [your language] has ditransitive constructions, serial verb constructions or complex verb forms composed of several verbs. Does your language have so called light verbs, perhaps only used to indicate a certain tense or aspect?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Adpositions'''<br />
|In this field you indicate if [your language[ makes use of prepositions or postpositions. Does your language have spatial nouns? Does your language use adpositions or particles to indicate grammatical relations between the verb and a nominal argument?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Complementation'''<br />
| In this field you describe complementation strategies. Does [your language] make use of complementizers?<br />
|-<br />
|'''Special Properties of [your language]<br />
| In this field you should mention properties of [your language] which did not fit into any of the other categories mentioned in this template<br />
<br />
|}</div>Mary Esther Kropp Dakubu